PHOTOGRAPHIC 

INSTRUCTION  BOOK 


A SYSTEMATIC  COURSE  AND  ILLUSTRATED  HAND-BOOK 
ON  THE  MODERN  PRACTICES  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY 
IN  ALL  ITS  VARIOUS  BRANCHES  FOR 
AMATEUR  AND  PROFESSIONAL 


BY 

TOWNSEND  D.  STITH 


ILLUSTRATED 


CHICAGO 

SEARS,  ROEBUCK  & CO, 
PUBLISHERS 


COPYRIGHT,  1903 
BY  TOWNSEND  D.  STITH 
CHICAGO,  IEL-,  U.S  A. 


Chicago,  March , iqoj. 

Note. — The  thanks  of  the  author  are  extended  to  Mr. 
O.  W.  Hodges  of  the  M.  A.  Seed  Dry  Plate  Company,  and  to 
the  Eastman  Kodak  Company  for  much  valuable  data  taken 
by  permission  from  books  of  their  publication. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS . 


CHAPTER  I. 

Apparatus  Required. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Hand  Cameras.  Kodaks. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Viewing  Cameras. 

Features  of  Cameras. — The  Swing  Back.  The 
Reversible  Back.  Rising  and  Falling  Front.  The 
Rack  and  Pinion.  The  Focusing  Screen. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Photographic  Lenses. — Fixed  Focus  Lenses. 
Diaphragms  or  Stops.  Definition  of  terms  ap- 
plied to  Lenses. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Photographic  Shutters.  Shutters  for  Portrait 
Work. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Plate  Holder.  The  Film  Holder.  The 
Cartridge  Roll  Holder.  The  Tripod.  The  Focus- 
ing Cloth.  The  Carrying  Case. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Developing  and  Printing  Outfit  — The 

Ruby  Lamp.  The  Developing  Tray.  The  Toning 
Tray.  The  Scales.  The  Graduated  Glass  Meas- 
ure. The  Printing  Frame. 

9 


IO 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Dry  Plates.  Cut  Films.  Cartridge  Film. 
CHAPTER  IX. 

Operation  of  the  Camera. — Loading  the  Film 
Camera.  Loading  the  Roll  Holder.  Loading  the 
Plate  Holder. 

CHAPTER  X. 

Landscape  Photography. — Lighting  and  Com- 
position. Exposing.  Architectural  Subjects. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Portrait  Photography. — Portraiture  at  home. 
Illustrations.  Out  Door  Portraiture.  Portraiture 
in  the  Studio.  Lighting. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Photographing  Interiors. — Lighting.  Approxi- 
mate Time  Needed  for  Exposures. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Flash  Light  Photography. — Preparation  of  the 
Flash  Light.  Taking  the  Picture.  The  Powder. 
Portraits.  Groups.  The  Background.  Using 
Flash  Cartridges.  Using  Flash  Sheets.  Second- 
ary uses  of  the  Flash  Light. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

MISCELLANEOUS  BRANCHES  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 
Snapshot  Photography. — Photographing  Mov- 
ing Objects.  Copying.  Reducing.  Enlarging. 
Stereoscopic  Photography.  Trick  Photography. 
X-Rays  and  their  uses.  Moving  Picture  Machines 
and  Motion  Photography. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Development  and  Completion  of  the  Negative. 

— Equipment  and  arrangement  of  the  Dark  . 


CONTENTS 


II 


Room.  The  Choice  of  a Developer.  Developing 
a Negative.  Recognition  and  Correction  of  Under 
and  Over  Exposure.  Intensifying  a Negative. 
Reducing  a Negative.  Drying  Negatives.  Varn- 
ishing Negatives.  Retouching.  Storing  Negatives. 
Defects  in  Negatives  and  their  Remedies.  De- 
veloping Cartridge  Films.  The  Chemistry  of 
Development.  General  Information. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Printing. — Production  and  Finishing  of  Prints 
on  Gelatine,  Collodion,  Developing,  Blue  Print 
and  Sepia  Papers.  Vignetting.  Mounting.  Glace 
Prints. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Platinum  Printing. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Carbon  Printing. 

• CHAPTER  XIX. 

Contact  Printing  with  Bromide  Paper. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Bromide  Enlargements. 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Lantern  Slide  and  Transparency  Making.  Uses 
of  Lantern  Slides. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

The  Gum  Bi-Chromate  Process. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

The  Sensitizing  and  Use  of  Plain  Papers. 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Useful  Formulae.  Weights  and  Measures. 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

Helpful  Hints. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  APPARATUS  REQUIRED. 

Cameras  adapted  for  the  amateur's  use  are  di- 
vided into  two  classes:  Hand  cameras  and  view- 
ing cameras.  These  classes  are  again  sub- 
divided into  many  styles  and  varieties  of  instru- 
ments. Before  it  is  practicable  to  enter  intelli- 
gently into  a practical  photographic  training  the 
amateur  should  provide  himself  with  the  neces- 
sary apparatus  and  he  should,  therefore,  select 
one  or  the  other  of  these  two  classes  of  instru- 
ments. This  selection  of  an  instrument  should 
invariably  be  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
work  which  the  embryo  photographer  has  in  con- 
templation, i.  e.,  whether  his  object  is  to  provide 
himself  with  agreeable  diversion  and  recreation 
or  with  a scientific  art  which  may  be  employed 
as  a profession  to  insure  permanent  occupation 
and  revenue. 

Upon  the  selection  of  the  first  instrument 
much  depends,  and  while  advising  the  novice  in 
this  respect  certain  considerations  should  be 
borne  in  mind  as  tending  to  his  ultimate  success 
and  these  are  his  personality,  tastes,  environment 
and  financial  ability.  Yet  one  rule  can  safely  be 
laid  down.  If  the  camera  is  to  be  used  by  the 
traveler  or  by  anyone  not  having  access  to  a 
dark  room,  a film  camera  should  be  used.  An 
exclusively  plate  camera  is  suitable  for  gallery 
work  and  viewing. 

For  the  amateur’s  use  it  is  well  to  have  an  in- 
strument that  will  use  film  as  well  as  plates. 

Films  in  light-proof  rolls  weigh  only  one-twen- 

13 


14 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


tieth  as  much  as  glass  plates  and  the  necessary 
plate  holders ; they  are  non-breakable,  are  as  easy 
to  develop  as  plates  and  in  rapidity  and  quality 
equal  the  best  plates  made. 

In  every  kind  of  amateur  photographic  work, 
where  it  is  not  desired  to  make  a negative  larger 
than  5x7,  transparent  film  is  rapidly  becoming 
more  popular  and  its  use  is  increasing  daily.  The 
reasons  are  obvious.  Film  is  a thin,  light,  roll- 
able  and  non-breakable  substance.  Plates  are 
heavy,  fragile  glass.  To  the  tourist,  where  the 
transportation  problem  is  to  be  faced,  the  use  of 
film  frequently  means  success  versus  failure. 
Films  and  plates  are,  nevertheless,  more  nearly 
alike  than  those  not  familiar  with  the  subject 
would  imagine.  Indeed,  they  are  identical,  ex- 
cept in  the  support  upon  which  the  sensitive  ma- 
terial (emulsion)  is  coated. 

When  this  emulsion  is  coated  on  glass  we  have 
“plates.”  When  coated  on  a thin,  flexible  sup- 
port it  is  called  “film.” 

Neither  the  glass  nor  this  flexible,  transparent 
material  does  more  than  furnish  a support  for  the 
emulsion  which  is  to  take  the  picture.  When 
exposed  in  the  camera,  the  results  are  identical, 
and  when  the  pictures  are  made  they  are  indis- 
tinguishable. 

Whatever  style  of  instrument  the  amateur  may 
select  he  will  require  the  following  articles  to 
complete  his  working  apparatus: 

Camera,  complete  with  Plate  Holder,  Lens  and 
Shutter  and  a Developing  and  Printing  Outfit, 
consisting  of  Developing  and  Toning  Trays, 
Graduated  Measuring  Glass,  Printing  Frame, 
Ruby  Lamp,  and  if  he  should  select  the  Viewing 
Camera,  the  above  list  must  be  augmented  by  the 
addition  of  a Tripod  and  Focusing  Cloth. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


15 


Chemicals  for  making  the  developing  and  ton- 
ing solutions  and  paper  and  dry  plates  will  also 
be  required,  particulars  concerning  which  will  be 
treated  elsewhere  in  this  work.  The  articles 
mentioned  in  the  above  list  may  be  purchased 
separately  or  they  may  be  bought  in  the  form  of 
a complete  equipment.  In  addition  there  are 
many  other  pieces  of  apparatus,  such  as  washing 
appliances,  drying  racks,  plate  lifters ; but  they 
are  not  absolutely  essential,  and  their  purchase 
may  be  deferred  until  the  beginner  has  achieved 
some  progress  and  feels  justified  in  making  the 
additional  outlay.  The  cost  of  photographic 
apparatus  varies  considerably,  according  to  qual- 
ity, but  as  the  cost  of  the  plates  and  papers  used 
in  both  cameras  of  good  and  inferior  quality  is 
the  same,  it  is  more  economical  in  the  end  for  the 
beginner  to  provide  himself  with  the  best  appar- 
atus that  he  can  afford. 


CHAPTER  II. 


HAND  CAMERAS. 

As  indicated  by  its  name,  a “hand”  camera  is 
one  that  is  intended  primarily  to  be  used  when 
held  by  the  hands,  and,  therefore,  except  on  rare 
occasions,  such  an  instrument  does  not  require  a 
tripod  as  in  the  case  of  the  view  camera.  As  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  hold  a camera  in  the 
hand  with  sufficient  steadiness  to  give  an  expo- 
sure of  more  than  about  the  tenth-part  of  a sec- 
ond, all  hand  cameras  are  provided  with  a shutter 
so  as  to  insure  quick  exposure. 

The  most  popular  size  for  a hand  camera  is 
4x5,  though  instruments  of  this  kind  are  made 
to  take  much  smaller  pictures ; some  users  are  not 
satisfied  with  so  small  a picture  as  4x5,  and  pre- 
fer a 5x7  instrument  or  even  63/2x83/2  or  8x10.  As 
a rule,  a 4x5  or  5x7  camera  will  be  found  quite 
large  enough  for  all  ordinary  amateur  work.  It 
is  not  many  years  ago  that  a hand  camera  was  re- 
garded as  a toy  rather  than  as  an  instrument  for 
serious  picture-taking;  but  this  opinion  no  lon- 
ger exists,  owing  to  the  development  of  this  most 
useful  instrument  from  the  original  crude  box  to 
the  present  perfect  apparatus. 

A hand  camera  is  even  better  than  its  proto- 
type on  a tripod,  in  depicting  street  scenes.  In 
this  class  of  work  a tripod  camera,  erected  in  a 
busy  thoroughfare,  would  not  only  obstruct  traf- 
fic. but  might  in  the  case  of  some  operators  be 
objected  to  as  rendering  them  disagreeably  con- 
spicuous. With  a hand  camera  the  amateur  can 
stroll  about  when  and  where  he  will  and  take  a 

16 


M ODER N PH OTOGRAP II Y. 


1 7 


shot  here  and  a shot  there,  without  attracting 
undue  notice  or  inconveniencing  anybody.  For 
cyclists,  too,  a hand  camera  is  most  convenient, 
as  it  is  compact,  easily  carried,  and  can  be  used 
at  a moment’s  notice  during  a ride. 

Hand  cameras  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes,  as  follows: 


FIG.  1.  MAGAZINE  CAMERA. 


Class  i.  Magazine  Cameras.  (See  Fig.  i.) — 
Those  in  which  a number  of  plates  or  cut  films 
are  stored  in  a chamber  or  magazine,  the  plates 
being  changed  after  each  exposure  by  means  of 
mechanism.  These  are  known  as  Magazine 
Cameras. 

In  this  class  the  plates  are  usually  placed  in 
metal  carriers,  and  as  a rule  each  camera  holds 
twelve  plates.  Several  forms  of  hand  cameras 
are  made  on  this  principle.  This  class  of  camera 
possesses  the  advantage  of  enabling  the  user  to 
make  several  exposures  in  quick  succession,  and 
in  many  cases  this  feature  is  a decided  conve- 
nience. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


18 


FIG.  2.  FOLDING  FOCUSING  CAMERA. 

Class  2.  Folding  Focusing  Cameras.  (See 
Fig.  2.) — Those  which  are  so  constructed  that 
when  not  in  use  are  self  contained  in  a neat 
leather  covered  box,  but  when  desired,  by  press- 
ing a concealed  button  one  side  of  the  box  is 
caused  to  be  lowered,  forming  a bed  upon  which 
the  camera  front  containing  the  lens  and  shutter 
is  drawn  out,  rendering  the  instrument  adaptable 
for  instant  use.  This  style  is  known  as  the 
Folding  Hand  Camera.  They  are  provided 
with  ground  glass  screen,  tripod  sockets,  and 
focusing  scale  and  can  be  used  either  as  a Hand 
Camera  or  upon  a tripod  as  a regular  Viewing 
Camera.  In  them  can  be  used  either  dry-plates, 
sheet  films  or  films  in  rolls,  the  various  holders 
required  being  interchangeable. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


19 


A camera  of  the  class  of  style  2,  with  plate 
holders,  is  specially  suitable  when  a varied  range 
of  work  is  to  be  done,  as  plates  of  different 
speeds  can  be  carried  in  the  holders  and  a fast  or 
slow  plate  can  thus  be  selected  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  subject  to  be  taken.  A plentiful  sup- 
ply of  plates  is  not  always  a blessing  to  the  hand 
camera  worker,  for  he  is  then  often  tempted  to 
spend  a plate  on  a subject  of  little  or  no  interest, 
whereas,  if  only  a smaller  supply  of  plates  was 
available  greater  care  in  the  selection  of  the  view 
would  be  expended. 


FIG.  3.  FIXED  FOCUS  BOX  CAMERA. 

Class  3.  Fixed  Focus  Box  Cameras.  (See 
3-) — Those  known  as  Fixed  Focus  or  Box 
style,  in  which  the  plates  are  contained  in  plate 
holders. 

The  cameras  in  this  class  are  usually  provided 
with  space  for  three  double  plate  holders,  taking 
six  plates.  In  some  instruments  there  is  space 
for  carrying  all  three  holders  in  the  body  of  the 


20 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


camera  while  in  others  there  is  only  room  for  one 
holder,  the  other  two  being  carried  in  the  pocket. 
(See  Fig.  3.) 


FIG.  4.  NO.  3 FOLDING  POCKET  FIG.  5.  FOLDING  POCKET 
KODAK  WITH  B.  & L.  KODAK. 

AUTOMATIC  SHUTTER. 


Class  4.  Kodaks.  (See  Figs.  4 and  5.) — Cam- 
eras in  which  flexible  films  in  rolls  are  used  in- 
stead of  glass  plates,  the  film  being  wound  on 
spools  or  rollers.  The  action  of  winding  up  the 
exposed  portion  of  the  film  unwinds  a fresh  por- 
tion ready  for  the  next  exposure. 

The  cameras  in  class  4 appeal  perhaps  most 
strongly  to  the  tourist  and  holiday-maker  as  they 
enable  material  for  a large  number  of  exposures 
to  be  carried  with  very  little  weight.  There  are 
some  most  excellent  instruments  of  this  kind  on 
the  market,  which  are  well  worth  attention. 
Many  styles  are  made  in  such  compact  form  as 
to  permit  of  their  being  carried  in  any  ordinary 
coat  pocket.  These  are  known  as  Folding  Pocket 
Kodaks. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPH V. 


21 


With  a focusing  camera  the  operator  is  en- 
abled to  compose  or  arrange  his  view  on  the 
ground-glass  focusing  screen ; but  in  a strictly 
hand  camera  this  process  is  performed  by  means 
of  a little  appliance  termed  a view  finder. 

All  hand  cameras  using  rectangular  shaped 
plates  should  be  provided  with  either  two  view 
findersor  a reversible  finder,  to  enable  the  operator 
to  compose  both  horizontal  pictures  and  vertical 
pictures.  Many  hand  cameras  are  of  the  “fixed- 
focus”  type.  This  means  that  everything  beyond 
a certain  distance  (usually  about  7 to  9 feet)  from 
the  camera  is  in  correct  focus  on  the  plate,  and 
for  the  majority  of  snap-shot  pictures  a camera 
of  this  kind  will  do  all  that  is  required. 

If  the  amateur  wishes  to  go  in  for  portraits 
and  figure  studies,  however,  he  should  obtain  a 
camera  with  a focusing  arrangement  so  that 
nearer  subjects  can  be  successfully  taken.  Ap- 
paratus of  this  kind  is  described  under  class  2. 
This  focusing  can  be  performed  by  examining 
the  picture  on  a focusing  screen  and  then  racking 
the  camera  in  or  out  until  it  appears  perfectly 
sharp,  or  by  judging  or  measuring  the  distance 
at  which  the  subject  is  placed  from  the  camera 
and  then  racking  the  camera  front  out  until  it  is 
set  for  that  distance,  as  indicated  on  a small  grad- 
uated scale  termed  the  focusing  scale. 

With  portraits  and  figure  studies  the  focusing 
adjustment  is  specially  required  so  as  to  enable 
the  figures  to  be  taken  of  sufficient  size. 

On  the  cheaper  kinds  of  hand  cameras  single 
lenses  are  usually  fitted,  and,  for  landscape  work 
such  lenses  are  suitable,  but  one  with  a rapid 
rectilinear  lens  is  to  be  preferred,  if  the  extra 
cost  can  be  afforded. 


22 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


The  shutters  supplied  with  hand  cameras  are 
extremely  varied  in  design.  The  shutter  should 
be  both  set  and  released  from  the  outside  of  the 
camera,  and  the  latter  operation  should  be  per- 
formed without  the  necessity  for  undue  move- 
ment or  pressure.  It  should  be  capable  of  being 
adjusted  for  various  speeds,  and  should  have  an 
indicator  to  show  the  various  speeds  at  which 
it  works.  The  range  of  adjustment  should  be 
from  about  one-tenth  of  a second  to  not  less  than 
one-fiftieth,  and  the  shutter  should  also  be  ca- 
pable of  giving  time  exposures  if  necessary. 
When  it  is  desired  to  give  a time  exposure  with 
a hand  camera,  it  is  usual  to  rest  the  instrument 
on  a convenient  fence  or  post,  or  else  on  a tripod. 
A further  point  with  regard  to  the  shutter  is 
that  it  should  not  uncover  the  plate  when  being 
set.  For  ordinary  snap-shot  work  a shutter  speed 
of  about  one-twenty-fifth  of  a second  is  generally 
sufficient.  The  higher  the  speed  of  the  shutter, 
the  greater  the  danger  of  under-exposure. 

As  far  as  possible,  all  the  movements  should 
be  accessible  from  the  outside  of  the  camera  and 
the  various  working  parts  should  be  easily  acces- 
sible for  cleaning,  adjustment,  and  repair.  A 
numerical  indicator  should  be  connected  to  the 
plate-changing  mechanism,  in  the  case  of  Maga- 
zine Cameras,  to  show  how  many  plates  have 
been  exposed,  and  it  should  be  possible  to  remove 
the  exposed  plates  at  any  time  without  interfer- 
ing with  those  which  may  still  be  unexposed. 

It  is  now  almost  a universal  practice  among 
Hand  Camera  makers  to  furnish  their  apparatus’ 
complete  with  lens,  shutter  and  plate  holder,  thus 
saving  the  prospective  purchaser  the  trouble  of 
selecting  each  item  separately. 


CHAPTER  III. 


VIEWING  CAMERAS.  FEATURES  OF 
CAMERAS. 

Size  of  the  Outfit. — Camera  manufacturers 
have  adopted  a series  of  standard  sizes  for  their 
instruments.  Very  large  cameras  may  be  left 


FIG.  b. 


out  of  the  question,  as  unsuited  to  the  general 
requirements  of  amateur  workers,  and  the  fol- 
lowing sizes  may  be  considered  as  those  from 
which  a selection  should  be  made.  The  figures 
given  are  the  dimensions  of  the  largest  picture 
which  each  camera  is  capable  of  taking: 

5x7~in.,  5x8-in.,  6p2x8^4-in.,  8xio-in. 

23 


24 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Of  the  foregoing  sizes  there  are  two  the  use  of 
which  largely  preponderates.  These  are  5x7  and 
6y2x8y2.  If  the  reader  wishes  to  keep  both  his 
initial  and  working  expenses  as  low  as  possible, 
he  should  content  himself  with  the  smaller  of 
these  two  sizes.  When  he  has  gained  some  ex- 
perience and  is  fairly  proficient,  he  may  perhaps 
feel  tempted  to  employ  a 63^x83/2  camera.  All 
things  considered,  however,  a 5x7  instrument  is 
the  best  size  for  the  beginner  to  commence  with. 
By  a simple  contrivance  known  as  a “kit”  smaller 
pictures  can  be  taken  with  a 5x7  or  larger  cam- 
era, so  that  if  the  reader  wishes  to  experiment  in 
a small  way  at  the  start,  it  is  a very  easy  matter 
for  him  to  do  so. 

The  Points  of  a Good  Viewing  Camera. — A 

knowledge  o-f  the  features  which  a good  camera 
should  possess  will  be  of  service  to  the  reader 
when  selecting  an  instrument.  Since  the  camera 
has  to  be  carried  about  from  place  to  place  it 
should  be  as  light  as  possible,  and  it  should  fold 
up  into  a small  compass.  These  qualities,  how- 
ever, should  not  be  obtained  at  the  sacrifice  of 
rigidity,  for  it  is  upon  the  firmness  of  the  camera 
and  its  support,  that  the  sharpness  of  the  result- 
ant picture  largely  depends.  The  front  of  the 
camera  should  be  provided  with  a rising  and 
falling  adjustment,  so  that  the  lens  may  be 
moved  above  or  below  the  level  of  the  center 
of  the  plate,  though  it  should  be  exactly  opposite 
this  point  when  in  its  normal  position. 

The  bellows  should  be  made  of  leather  or  bel- 
lows cloth,  and  may  be  either  parallel  or  tapering 
in  shape.  The  latter  kind  is  known  as  a “con- 
ical” bellows,  and  is  generally  preferred  on  ac- 
count of  the  saving  in  weight  which  their  use 
allows.  (See  Fig.  6.)  When  a conical  bellows  is 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


25 


fitted,  the  purchaser  should  satisfy  himself  that 
if  the  back  of  the  camera  is  moved  close  up  to 
the  front,  as  is  the  case  when  using  a short-focus 
lens,  no  part  of  the  picture  on  the  plate  is  cut  off. 

It  is  essential  for  good  work  that  the  camera 
should  be  provided  with  what  is  termed  a 
“swing-back,”  and  the  amateur  will  also  find  it  of 
great  advantage  to  have  a camera  with  a re- 
versing back,  that  is  a back  which  will  fit  in  both 
a horizontal  and  a vertical  position.  As  will  be 
seen  from  the  foregoing  list  of  standard  sizes  the 
plates  are  made  oblong  in  shape,  and  the  re- 
versing back  enables  the  plate  to  be  used  either 
vertically  or  horizontally,  as  required. 

With  a 6)4x8)4  camera,  sufficient  adjustment 
should  be  provided  to  enable  an  extension  of  not 
less  than  16  or  17  inches  to  be  made.  The  wood- 
work of  the  camera  should  be  of  well-seasoned 
mahogany. 

Features  of  Cameras. — In  the  foregoing  pages 
the  terms : swing-back,  view-finder,  etc.,  have 
been  used  and  the  reader  will  derive  a full  com- 
prehension of  a definition  of  the  meaning  of  these 
terms  from  the  following  detailed  explanation : 
The  Swing  Back. — In  making  pictures  of 
buildings  or  of  any  subject 
other  than  purely  landscape 
ones,  the  sensitive  plate  should 
be  in  a perfectly  perpendicu- 
lar plane  with  the  subject  in 
order  to  obtain  good  results. 
The  purpose  of  a swing-back 
is  to  keep  the  place  always  ab- 
solutely perpendicular.  (See  Fig.  7.)  To  include 
the  top  of  a tall  building  or  church  spire,  or  se- 
cure more  of  a subject  than  can  be  obtained  with 
the  camera  in  its  normal  position,  it  is  often  nec- 


FIG.  7. 


26 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


essary  to  tilt  it,  and  under  such  conditions,  with 
a rigid  back,  the  lines  of  the  resulting  photo- 
graph will  converge  more  or  less  at  the  top,  as 
the  plate  will  be  at  an  angle  with  the  subject.  If, 
however,  the  back  of  the  camera  is  made  to 
move  or  “swing”  independently,  then,  even 
though  the  camera  is  not  level,  the  sensitive  plate 
can  be  placed  parallel  with  the  subject  and 
straight  lines  secured — or,  in  photographic  par- 
lance, there  would  be  no  distortion,  but  a perfect 
rectilinear  effect.  A swing-back  is  not  absolutely 
essential  for  hand  work  and  in  fact  is  not  used  to 
so  great  an  extent  with  4x5  cameras  as  with 
larger  sizes.  Nevertheless  it  will  be  found  very 
convenient  for  tripod  exposures,  and  indispen- 
sable under  conditions  noted  above. 

The  Rising  and  Falling  Front. — The  purpose 
of  a rising  and  falling  front  is  to  shift  the  lens 


Fig.  8.  Rising  and  Falling  Fig.  9.  Double  Sliding 
Front.  Front. 

above  or  below  the  center  of  the  sensitive  plate — 
its  normal  position — in  order  to  include  more  or 
less  foreground.  (See  Figs.  8-9.)  It  will  also 
be  found  an  aid  in  securing  the  upper  part  of  a 
building  or  similar  subject,  which  could  not  be 
covered  by  the  lens  if  at  the  center. 

The  Reversible  Back. — A reversible  back  cam- 
era, to  the  casual  observer,  does  not  differ  in 
appearance  from  the  ordinary  type,  but  it  has  de- 
cided advantages.  The  back  frame  which  carries 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


27 


the  sensitive  plate  can  be  placed  either  upright  or 
horizontal  at  will — without  changing  position  of 
the  camera — a decided  advantage,  especially 
when  making  tripod  exposure.  Fig.  10  shows  the 
camera  back  with  a plate  in  a horizontal  posi- 


tion; a portion  of  the  subject  being  cut  off.  By 
reversing  the  back  the  plate  will  be  vertical,  as 
in  Fig.  11 — the  whole  subject  included,  and  often 
a more  artistic  effect  obtained. 

Rack  and  Pinion. — This  is  a metal  roller  de- 
vice working  in  a milled  track  used  on  the  bed  for 
moving  the  front  of  camera,  to  which  lens  and 
shutters  are  attached,  backward  or  forward,  until 
the  proper  focus  is  obtained. 

In  the  cheaper  apparatus  this  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  a lever  or  hook ; but  this  method  is 
inconvenient  as  compared  with  the  use  of  the 
rack. 

The  View  Finder  is  in  reality  similar  to  a min- 
iature camera,  consisting  of  a lens  and  reflecting 
mirrors.  Its  purpose  is  to  give  an  exact  repro- 
duction, in  miniature  size,  of  the  view  as  it  will 
appear  on  the  negative.  Finders  are  made  in 
various  forms,  adaptable  to  use  upon  either  fold- 
ing or  non-folding  cameras,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  Ground  Glass  or  “Focusing”  Screen. — At 
the  back  of  a tripod  camera  there  is  a frame  in 


2 8 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


which  is  fixed  a sheet  of  ground  glass.  This 
glass  is  termed  the  “focusing  screen.”  On  this 
the  picture  to  be  taken  is  arranged  and  focused. 
When  the  camera  is  first  set  up  and  pointed  at 
the  object  to  be  taken,  the  picture  will  probably 
appear  very  indistinct  and  fuzzy.  The  amateur 
may  be  surprised  also  to  find  that  the  picture 
appears  upside  down  on  the  glass ; but  this  is  the 
natural  result  of  the  action  of  the  lens,  and  is  a 
peculiarity  to  which  he  will  soon  get  quite  accus- 
tomed. The  front  of  the  camera  is  then  moved 
in  or  out  by  means  of  a rack  and  pinion  move- 
ment until  the  picture  appears  sharp  on  the 
ground  glass. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


LENSES:  DIAPHRAGMS  OR  STOPS.- 

DEFINITIONS  OF  TERMS  USED  IN 
DESCRIBING  LENSES. 

Lenses. — The  next  member  of  a complete  pho- 
tographic apparatus  to  receive  attention  is  the 
lens.  Lenses  of  many  names,  mystifying  in  the 
extreme  to  the  novice',  are  advertised ; buLthese 
may  be  divided  into  five  classes,  four  of  which 
are  in  general  use.  The  fifth  (the  Tele-Photo) 
is  at  present  but  little  understood.  The  four  in 
general  use  are:  First,  the  Single  Lens  (single 

combination)  ; second,  the  Rapid  Rectilinear 
Lens  (Double  combination)  ; third,  the  Wide 
Angle  Lens  (Double  combination)  ; fourth,  the 
Portrait  Lens  (Double  combination). 

Single  Lenses  are  made  in  two 
forms,  meniscus  (see  Figs.  12-13) 
and  piano  convex.  The  menis- 
cus form  is  always  employed  ex- 
cept in  the  cheapest  class  of  cam- 
eras. These  lenses  are  always 
mounted  behind  the  diaphragm 
Fig.  12.  Fig.  13.  which  controls  the  amount  of 
Plano-  Menis-  li^ht  to  be  admitted  through  the 
Convex.  cus.  jens 

A Single  Combination  lens,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, contains  but  one  “combination,  a com- 
bination being  two  or  more  glass  elements 
cemented  together  with  Canada  balsam. 
The  chief  advantage  which  the  single  lens 
offers  to  amateur  workers  is  that  it  is  con- 
siderably lower  in  price  than  the  other  types 

29 


30 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


and  is  used  in  cameras  making  pictures  4x5 
inches  or  less  in  size.  For  landscape  photography 
and  for  figure  studies,  a good  single  lens  will 
prove  very  satisfactory.  To  the  amateur,  how- 
ever, who  wishes  to  do  as  great  a variety  of 
work  as  possible  with  one  lens,  the  single  type 
has  a great  disadvantage  in  that  it  is  entirely  un- 
suited for  taking  any  subject  where  straight  lines 
have  to  be  included,  such  as  in  photographs  of 
buildings,  copying  drawings,  etc. ; for  in  such 
cases  it  distorts  the  straight  lines  into  a more  or 
less  curved  form,  hence  this  type  of  lens  is  not 
suitable  for  making  pictures  larger  than  4x5 
inches. 


Fig.  14. 


A Rapid  Rectilinear  or  Double  Achromatic 
Lens  is  composed  of  two  single  achromatic 
iens  combinations  mounted  one  in  each  end  of 
the  lens  tube,  placed  face  to  face.  (See  Fig.  14.) 

When  a stop  is  placed  in  front  of  a single  lens 
the  image  produced  is  “barrel  shaped,”  and 
when  the  stop  is  placed  back  of  the  lens  the  im- 
age is  “pin-cushion”  shape.  The  stop  in  the 
rectilinear  lens  being  placed  between  the  two 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


31 


combinations  is,  of  course,  in  front  of  the  back, 
and  back  of  the  front  combinations.  It  is  very 
evident,  then,  that  the  distortion  of  the  one 
would  be  counteracted  by  the  distortion  of  the 
other,  and  hence  the  result — a straight  line.  This 
defect  of  the  one  being  counteracted  or  corrected 
by  the  defect  of  the  other  permits  of  a large  aper- 
ture being  used  in  comparison  with  that  of  the 
single  lens,  hence  the  name  Rapid  Rectilinear. 

Undoub  t e d 1 y 
the  best  kind  of 
lens  for  all-round 
work  is  the  rapid 
rectilinear,  as  the 
pictures  taken 
with  a lens  of  this 
type  are  absolute- 
ly free  from  dis- 
torted or  curved 
lines. 

A further  advantage  of  this  lens  over  the  single 
lens  is  that  it  is  much  quicker  in  working.  A 
rapid  rectilinear  lens  may  be  used  with  good  re- 
sults for  any  of  the  following  classes  of  work : 

Landscape,  architectural  subjects,  copying, 
portraits,  groups,  and  figure  studies.  It  is  also 
very  suitable  for  instantaneous  and  snap-shot 
pictures. 

Rapid  rectilinear  lenses  are  made  in  many 
grades  and  of  many  types,  and  are  marketed 
under  various  names,  such  as  Rectilinears,  Anas- 
tigmats,  Symmetricals,  etc.,  the  double  Anastig- 
mats  being  the  highest  grade. 

The  Stigmatic  and  Anastigmatic  Lenses  (See 
Fig.  15),  of  which  there  are  a number  of  different 
series  manufactured,  are  a new  form  of  lens  of 
comparatively  recent  invention.  They  are  cer- 


32 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


tainly  of  the  highest  plane  to  which  the  photo- 
raphic  optician  has  obtained.  They  are  made  of 
the  new  Jena  glass  and  the  various  series  are 
composed  of  from  two  to  eight  lenses. 

They  are  of  convertible  form  and  they  may  be 
used  with  either  front  or  back  combinations  sep- 
arately. By  so  doing  three  different  focal  lengths 
are  obtained  and  the  possessor  of  these  lenses 
has  in  reality  three  lenses  combined  in  one. 


Fig.  16.  Fig.  17. 

The  Wide  Angle  Lens  is  very  similar  in  form 
and  the  same  in  principle  as  that  of  the  Rapid 
Rectilinear;  the  chief  difference  being  that  the 
lens  combinations  are  mounted  closer  together 
and  the  curvature  greater  in  the  same  focal 
length  of  lens. 

Fig.  16  represents  one  of  the  most  common 
forms  of  wide  angle  lenses.  It  will  readily  be 
seen  by  the  construction  of  the  lens-mount  that  it 
will  permit  of  a very  wide  angle  of  view.to  pass 
through  to  the  plate,  while  in  the  Rapid  Recti- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  33 

linear  (Fig.  17)  the  angle  would  be  cut  off  by  the 
length  of  the  barrel. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  because  one  is 
the  possessor  of  a wide  angle  lens  he  will  be  able 
to  obtain  the  angle  desired  on  any  size  of  plate  he 
may  wish  to  use.  A wide  angle  lens  is  so  called 
because  its  angular  capacity  is  large  in  propor- 
tion to  its  focal  length.  But  if  we  have  a lens  of, 
say,  six  inches  focus,  with  an  angular  capacity  of 
100  degrees  and  a 4x5  plate  be  used,  it  will  read- 
ily be  seen  that  we  do  not  utilize  the  full  capacity 
of  the  lens,  and  hence  only  a comparatively  nar- 


row angle  of  view  is  obtained.  In  Fig.  18  the 
lines  ab  and  cd  indicate  the  angular  capacity  of 
the  lens.  A 4x5  plate  being  used,  the  base  line, 
or  5 inch  side,  H K represents  the  angle  obtained, 
which  is  less  than  half  the  capacity  of  the  lens. 

A wide  angle  lens  is  intended  for  use  in  con- 
fined positions,  and  for  photographing  high 
buildings  in  narrow  thoroughfares,  for  interiors 
of  small  rooms,  and  for  similar  work,  it  is  almost 
indispensable.  A disadvantage  attaches  to  its 


34 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


use,  however,  in  the  fact  that  the  perspective  of 
the  view  so  taken  appears  exaggerated  and  dis- 
pleasing to  the  eye;  but  since  there  is  no  means 
of  taking  many  subjects  except  by  the  aid  of  such 
a lens,  this  alteration  in  the  appearance  of  the 
perspective  must  be  accepted. 

The  Portrait  Lens. — A Portrait  Lens  may  be 
considered  one  of  the  crowning  successes  of  the 
photographic  optician.  Although  invented  a 
number  of  years  ago,  no  photographer’s  outfit  of 
the  present  day  would  be  considered  complete 
without  one.  They  are  specially  designed  for 
very  short  exposure  and  are  from  four  to  six 
times  as  quick  working  as  the  ordinary  rapid 
rectilinear  lens.  They  cover  a very  small  plate  in 
proportion  to  their  focal  length  and  conse- 
quently possess  a narrow  angle.  The  image  pro- 
duced is  very  soft  and  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  the 
most  artistic  results  in  portraiture  are  produced 
with  them.  The  lenses  of  the  back  combination 
are  separated  by  an  air  space  which,  together 
with  their  extremely  large  apertures,  produce  the 
fine  soft  effect. 

Lenses  of  this  type  are  intended  for  Portrait 
work  only  and  they  are  of  little  use  for  any  other 
class  of  work. 

The  Tele-Photo  is  a distinct  type  of  lens  of 
which  a brief  description  is  given  on  account 
of  its  distinction  from  the  other  lenses 
and  its  usefulness  in  the  production  of  long- 
distance views.  It  is  composed  of  two 
individual  combinations ; a collective  or  positive 
combination  and  a dispersive  or  negative  com- 
bination. The  office  of  the  collective  lens  is  to 
collect  as  many  as  possible  of  the  rays  of  light 
which  are  reflected  from  the  object  to  be  photo- 
graphed, and  to  focus  them  within  the  radius  of 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


35 


the  dispersive  combination,  which  projects  an 
enlarged  image  upon  the  plate.  In  this  manner 
a large  image  of  a distinct  object  may  be  ob- 
tained with  a comparatively  very  short  bellows 
draw.  They  are  very  useful  in  photographing 
distant  mountain  scenery,  vessels  far  out  at  sea 
and  various  animals  for  the  study  of  naturalists, 
pictures  of  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  ob- 
tain at  close  range. 


— j 


Fixed  Focus  Lens. — The  repeated  mention  of 
this  lens  in  catalogues  and  advertisements  has 
created  an  impression  that  it  is  some  distinct 
kind  of  lens,  with  the  extraordinary  power  of 
focusing  all  objects  near  and  far  in  one  plane. 
There  is  no  inherent  quality  in  any  lens  that 
makes  it  “fixed  focus” ; it  is  such  when  it  is  im- 
movable and  that  is  all.  Any  lens  can,  therefore, 
be  made  “fixed  focus”  but  the  extent  t.o  which 
it  will  focus  all  objects  in  one  plane  depends 
upon  its  length  of  focus  and  size  of  stop  or 
diaphragm  used,  and  upon  that  only. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  rays  of  light 
from  near  and  far  objects  do  not  focus  at  the 
same  point.  For  instance,  we  will  assume  that 
B,  in  Fig.  19,  is  the  point  at  which  objects  one 
hundred  feet  distant  will  focus  and  that  A is 
where  objects  10  feet  distant  will  focus.  Now  the 
distance  between  A and  B will  vary  in  ratio  to 


36 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


the  focal  length  of  the  lens.  In  a lens  of  3 inches 
focus  it  is  ascertained  mathematically  to  be 
3-16  of  an  inch  and  in  one  of  12  inches  focus, 
ij4  inches.  Hence  if  using  a 3 inch  focus  lens 
the  sensitive  surface  is  placed  between  A and 
B the  object  at  100  feet  and  beyond  (all  objects 
beyond  100  feet  come  practically  within  one 
focus)  and  objects  10  feet  distant  will  none  of 
them  be  more  than  3-32  out  of  focus,  which,  with 
the  size  of  stop  ordinarily  used  for  snap  work, 
creates  so  slight  a blurring  of  the  image  that  it 
cannot  be  detected.  Experience  has  shown  that 
the  limit  of  focus  for  a lens  which  is  to  be  em- 
ployed for  snap  shot  work  with  the  focus  fixed 
is  under  5^2  inches;  in  other  words  thata3^4X4*4 
plate  is  about  the  largest  that  can  be  used  to 
advantage  under  such  circumstances.  It  is  prob- 
ably true  that  for  cameras  of  this  size  and  under, 
nothing  can  be  gained  by  having  the  focus  ad- 
justable and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  better  aver- 
age results  will  be  obtained  with  a fixed  focus, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  there  is  no  adjustment 
that  will  allow  the  lens  to  be  put  out  of  focus 
by  a mistake  in  measuring  distances. 

Diaphragms  or  Stops. — All  lenses  are  provided 
with  “diaphragms”  or  “stops,”  for  the  purpose 
of  regulating  the  size  of  the  aperture  through 
which  light  can  pass.  There  are  three  kinds 
of  diaphragms  fitted  to  lenses,  viz. : Waterhouse 
diaphragms,  Iris  diaphragms  and  rotary  or 
wheel  diaphragms.  A Waterhouse  diaphragm 
is  a small  piece  of  sheet  metal,  having  a circular 
hole  made  in  the  center.  This  is  inserted  in  a 
slot  cut  in  the  brass  lens  mount  and  blocks  out 
all  the  light  except  that  which  passes  through 
the  hole.  A set  of  these  is  provided,  having  dif- 
ferent sized  holes.  An  Iris  diaphragm  consists 
of  a set  of  thin  plates  overlapping  one  another 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


37 


and  fixed  inside  the  lens  mount.  These  are  so 
arranged  that  when  a circular  ring  that  is  fitted 
to  the  outside  of  the  mount  is  rotated,  the  plates 
move  in  or  out  and  so  vary  the  size  of  the  open- 
ing in  the  center,  the  action  being  very  similar 
to  the  action  of  the  iris  of  the  human  eye.  A 
Rotary  diaphragm  takes  the  form  of  a circular 
disc,  with  several  different  sized  holes  therein. 
This  is  pivoted  on  the  lens  mount,  and  as  it  is 
rotated  one  or  the  other  of  the  various  holes 
comes  opposite  the  center  of  the  lens  opening. 

The  two  former  kinds  of  diaphragms  are  those 
most  commonly  used,  and  for  general  conveni- 
ence the  Iris  pattern  is  greatly  preferred.  It  has 
the  advantage  of  being  in  one  with  the  lens 
mount,  so  that  it  cannot  be  mislaid  or  left  be- 
hind as  is  the  case  with  the  Waterhouse  type. 
An  Iris  diaphragm  is  a little  more  expensive,  but 
its  extra  quality  justifies  the  investment.  Ro- 
tary diaphragms  are  often  used  for  hand  camera 
lenses. 

A volume  might  be  written  on  the  subject  of 
stops,  but  a few  lines  will  suffice  to  give  the 
amateur  an  idea  of  why  they  are  necessary, 
and  how  they  should  be  used. 

The  best  part  of  a lens  is  its  center,  i.  e.,  those 
rays  of  light  which  pass  through  the  lens  at  or 
near  the  center  will  be^  correctly  refracted  and 
will  therefore  give  the  image  clear  and  sharp  on 
the  ground  glass,  while  the  rays  which  pass 
through  the  outer  edges  of  the  lens  will  not  make 
such  a clear  and  distinct  image.  It  can  thus  be 
seen  that  the  smaller  the  stop  opening  the 
sharper  the  picture,  because  the  outside  rays 
will  be  cut  off.  But  it  will  be  discovered  that 
with  a small  diaphragm  or  stop  opening  the  light 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


38 

is  to  a great  extent  cut  down.  If  the  beginner 
has  a camera  with  focusing  glass  it  will  be  well 
for  him  to  focus  on  some  object  on  the  ground 
glass,  using  the  largest  diaphragm  and  care- 
fully noting  the  lines  to  see  if  they  are  sharp. 
Then  let  him  put  a smaller  stop  in  position,  not- 
ing the  increase  in  sharpness  and  the  decrease  in 
light.  The  better  the  lens  the  larger  the  stop 
opening  which  can  be  successfully  used,  and 
consequently  the  “faster”  the  lens.  Suppose  one 
lens  of  8-inch  focus  is  employed  and  that  in  a 
given  light  a clear,  sharp  picture  is  made  in  5 
seconds  with  a stop  one  inch  in  diameter,  while 
with  another  lens  of  same  focal  length  a stop 
only  one-half  inch  in  diameter  must  be  used 
in  order  to  get  a sharp  picture.  How  would  they 
compare  in  speed?  Nine  people  out  of  ten  will 
jump  at  conclusions  and  say  that  the  lens  with 
the  half-inch  opening  must  be  given  10  seconds. 
In  this  case  the  first  impression  is  not  correct. 
Four  times  the  time  or  20  seconds  must  be  given 
because  the  area  of  the  one-inch  stop  is  four 
times  that  of  the  half-inch  stop.  A simple  little 
rule  can  be  deduced  from  this,  and  if  the  correct 
exposure  with  one  stop  is  known  the  correct  ex- 
posure for  the  others  can  readily  be  ascertained. 
The  time  variation  between  two  stops  is  in- 
versely as  the  square  of  their  diameters. 

With  most  single-lens  cameras  there  are  stop- 
openings  of  three  sizes,  the  largest,  for  ordinary 
snap  shots,  the  second  (which  has  about  2-3  the 
diameter  of  the  largest),  for  snap  shots  on  the 
water  and  in  tropical  or  semi-tropical  climates  or 
for  time  exposures  indoors,  and  the  smallest,  or- 
dinarily used  for  time  exposures  out  of  doors — 
never  for  snap  shots. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


39 


With  the  double  lenses  there  is  a greater  num- 
ber of  stop  openings  and  they  are  arranged  upon 
what  is  known  as  tlje  Uniform  System,  com- 
monly abbreviated  to  “U.  S.” 

Of  course  when  in  a general  way  it  is  said  that 
the  speed  of  a lens  depends  upon  the  diameter 
of  the  stop  opening  it  is  not  meant,  for  instance, 
that  a Pocket  Kodak  stop  opening  must  be  as 
large  as  the  diaphragm  in  the  lens  of  an  8 x io 
camera  in  order  to  have  the  same  speed,  but  it 
must  be  as  large  in  proportion,  and  that  propor- 
tion is  based  upon  the  length  of  focus  (the  dis- 
tance between  lens  and  plate)  of  the  lens.  The 
proportionate  size  or  the  “value”  of  the  stop 
opening  is  designated  by  /,  and  is  the  quotient 
obtained  by  dividing  the  focal  length  of  the  lens 
by  the  diameter  of  the  stop.  For  instance : a 
lens  of  8-inch  focus  with  a stop  one  inch  in 
diameter  gives  8-f-i=8.  Hence,  8 is  the  / 
value  of  the  stop  and  would  be  designated : f 8. 
Suppose  the  stop  is  inch  in  diameter,  then 
8-^"4  =/32. 

For  convenience  the  Uniform  System  of  mark- 
ing stop  openings  has  been  adopted  by  nearly  all 
manufacturers  of  Iris  diaphragms  and  the  fol- 
lowing table  will  help  the  amateur  to  understand 
the  meaning  of  these  markings  by  giving  the  f 
value  for  each  one : 

U.  S.  4 = f 8 
U.  S.  8 = / 11.3 
U.  S.  i6  = fi6 
U.  S.  32  = f 22.6 
U.  S.  64=^32 
U.  S.  128  = / 45.2 

The  convenience  of  the  U.  S.  system  is  at  once 
apparent  when  it  is  understood  that  each  higher 


4o 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


number  stands  for  an  opening  having  half  the 
area  of  the  preceding  opening.  Between  each 
number,  therefore,  the  time  is  doubled.  If  stop 
No.  16  is  used  twice  is  given  or  if  No.  32  four 
times  the  time  of  the  table,  while  with  stop  No.  4 
only  one-half  the  time  of  the  table  would  be 
given. 

Ordinarily  the  appended  table  is  a good  one  to 
follow  in  the  use  of  the  stops  with  a rapid  rec- 
tilinear lens,  but  there  are  some  exceptions: 

No.  4. — For  instantaneous  exposures  in  slight- 
ly cloudy  weather  and  for  portraits.  Instan- 
taneous exposures  on  dark,  cloudy  days  should 
not  be  attempted. 

No.  8. — For  all  ordinary  instantaneous  expos- 
ures when  the  sun  shines. 

No.  16. — For  instantaneous  exposures  when 
the  sunlight  ' is  unusually  strong  and  there  are 
no  heavy  shadows ; such  as  views  on  the  seashore 
or  on  the  water,  or  in  tropical  or  semi-tropical 
climates:  also  for  interior  time  exposures. 

Nos.  32  and  64. — For  interiors.  Never  for  in- 
stantaneous exposures. 

No.  128. — For  time  exposures  outdoors  in 
cloudy  weather.  Never  for  instantaneous  expos- 
ures. The  time  required  for  time  exposures  on 
cloudy  days  with  smallest  stop  will  range  from 
3/2  second  to  5 seconds,  according  to  the  light. 
1 he  smaller  the  stop  the  sharper  the  picture. 

If  the  smallest  stop  is  used  for  instantaneous 
exposures,  absolute  failure  will  result. 

The  No.  4 stop  is  not  to  be  used  when  absolute 
sharpness  is  desired,  as  the  opening  is  so  large 
that  few  lenses  will  have  a good  “depth  of  focus” 
with  it — i.  e.,  only  the  objects  at  the  exact  dis- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


41 


tance  focused  will  be  sharp,  those  nearer  by  or 
farther  away  being  more  or  less  “out  of  focus.” 
Sharpness  is  extremely  desirable  in  a picture ; 
but  what  is  called  “roundness”  and  “atmosphere” 
is  perhaps  fully  as  important.  What  is  meant 
by  these  rather  vague  terms  is  sometimes  puz- 
zling to  the  beginner  and  they  are,  perhaps,  best 
explained  as  referring  to  that  quality  in  a pic- 
ture which  gives  the  proper  idea  of  both  distance 
and  perspective — that  quality  which  is  the  oppo- 
site of  the  silhouette;  which  makes  every  object 
appear  in  proper  relation  to  every  other  object 
and  gives  life  and  character  to  the  picture.  “At- 
mosphere” and  “roundness”  are  somewhat  lost  by 
using  too  small  a stop.  The  largest  opening 
which  will  give  a sharp  picture  should  therefore 
be  used. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  TERMS  USED  IN  DE- 
SCRIPTION OF  PHOTOGRAPHIC 
LENSES. 

Achromatic. — White  light  passed  through  a 
prism  or  a single  lens  will  be  separated  into 
colors,  the  same  as  those  of  the  “rainbow.” 
These  colors  are  called  Chromatic.  A lens 
that  is  so  corrected  that  it  does  not  sep- 
arate the  light  into  colors  is  called  Achro- 
matic. This  correction  is  made  by  placing 
together  two  lenses,  one  a converging  and 
the  other  a diverging  lens ; these  two  lenses 
together  are  called  a single  combination.  A 
double  combination  consists  of  two  of  these 
combinations  in  the  same  lens  system  or 
same  lens  barrel. 


42  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Anastigmatic  (§ee  Stigmatic). — Indicates  that 
the  lens  would  not  reproduce  a perfect  point, 
but  has  been  corrected  and  made  to  do  so. 

Angular  Capacity. — All  that  a lens  can  take,  the 
diagonal  of  the  largest  plate  it  will  cover. 

Aperture. — The  entire  surface  of  the  lens. 

Bi-Concave. — A lens  with  both  sides  curved  in  is 
called  Bi-Concave.  It  is  thinner  in  the  cen- 
ter than  at  the  edges. 

Bi-Convex. — A lens  with  both  sides  curved  out 
is  called  Bi-Convex.  It  is  thicker  in  the  cen- 
ter than  at  the  edges. 

Combination. — Single,  Double  (See  Achro- 
matic). 

Convergent. — Lines  or  rays  of  light  coming  to- 
gether at  a point  are  called  Convergent. 

Concave. — The  inner  side  of  a curve. 

Convex. — The  outer  side  of  a curve. 

Definition. — The  markings  which  go  to  make  up 
a picture.  Good  definition  shows  all  the 
markings ; poor  definition  shows  only  a part 
of  them. 

Degree. — One  of  the  360  parts  into  which  a circle 
is  divided. 

Diaphragm. — Any  instrument  or  device  used  to 
cut  down  the  amount  of  light  passing 
through  a lens  is  called  a diaphragm  or  stop. 

Diffusion. — A separation  or  a breaking  up — mix- 
ing together.  Diffusion  of  focus,  a separa- 
tion of  the  rays  of  light  so  as  not  to  produce 
a sharp  focus. 

Distorted. — Drawn  out  of  the  proper  shape. 

Divergent. — Separating.  Lines  proceeding  from 
a point  within  a half  circle  are  called  diverg- 
ent. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


43 


Elements. — Each  separate  lens  which  goes  to 
make  up  a lens  combination  is  called  an  ele- 
ment of  that  lens. 

Ellipse. — A flattened  circle. 

Focus. — The  point  where  convergent  lines  or 
rays  of  light  cross,  after  passing  through  the 
lens,  is  called  the  Focus. 

Intensity. — The  size  of  the  opening  of  a lens  ad- 
mitting the  light  to  the  plate  is  called  its 
working  intensity. 

Lens-Mount. — The  casing  into  which  a lens  is 
fastened  is  called  the  Lens-Mount. 

Objective. — A lens  or  lens  combination. 

Plano-Convex. — A term  used  to  indicate  that  one 
face  of  a lens  is  flat  and  the  other  convex. 

Plano-Concave. — Indicates  that  one  face  of  a lens 
is  flat  and  the  other  concave. 

Posterior. — Farthest  toward  the  rear,  as  the  back 
lens. 

Ray. — A single  line  of  light  coming  from  a point. 

Rectilinear. — Indicates  a straight  line.  A lens  is 
said  to  be  rectilinear  when  it  will  produce 
straight  lines  anywhere  on  a plate. 

Stop. — (See  Diaphragm.) 

Stigmatic. — From  stigma,  a point.  A lens  is 
called  stigmatic,  when  it  will  reproduce  per- 
fect points,  or  both  horizontal  and  perpen- 
dicular lines,  sharp  all  over  the  plate  at  the 
same  time. 

Simple. — Composed  of  one  only. 


44  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Tele-Photo. — From  Tele, — afar  off,  and  Photo, — 
an  abbreviation  of  photograph.  A Tele- 
photo lens  is  a lens  specially  constructed  for 
photographing  objects  a long  distance  away. 


CHAPTER  V. 

SHUTTERS. 


If  the  reader  wishes  to  take  photographs  of 
moving  objects,  a shutter  must  be  obtained.  For 
all  ordinary  work  requiring  exposures  of  p2  sec- 
ond and  upward,  such  an  article  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary. 


Fig.  20.  Fig.  21. 

The  shutter  is  usually  attached  to  the  lens, 
and  in  its  most  simple  form  may  consist  of  a 
piece  of  wood  or  metal,  in  which  an  opening  is 
cut,  and  which  slides  up  and  down  in  a frame 
supported  by  the  lens.  As  the  opening  in  the 
slide  passes  in  front  of  the  lens,  the  exposure  is 
made,  the  duration  of  which  depends  on  the  size 
of  the  aperture  and  the  speed  at  which  the  slide 
is  moving.  In  most  shutters  of  this  type,  the 
motion  is  obtained  by  allowing  the  sliding  piece 
to  fall  by  its  own  weight  when  released,  though 
the  speed  thus  obtained  may  be  considerably  in- 

45 


46 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


creased  by  using  an  extended  India  rubber  band 
to  exert  a pull.  In  more  expensive  forms  of 
shutters,  such  as  the  Thornton-Pickard,  roller- 
blinds  are  used  with  excellent  results,  the  shutter 
being  set  by  simply  pulling  a cord  and  the  re- 
lease being  made  by  squeezing  an  India  rubber 
bulb  attached  to  a closed  tube,  this  action  re^* 
leasing  the  spring  mechanism  which  actuates 
the  blind.  The  characteristics  of  a good  shutter 
are  as  follows : 

It  should  be  light  and  not  unwieldly  in  shape. 
It  should  work  quietly  and  without  imparting 
vibration  or  jar  to  the  camera.  It  should  be  ad- 
justable for  various  speeds  and  for  time  and  in- 
stantaneous exposures.  It  should  be  certain  in 
its  action  and  it  should  enable  the  operator  to  ef- 
fect the  release  without  taking  his  eyes  off  the 
object  to  be  photographed.  A good,  though  not 
absolutely  essential  feature,  is  that  the  shutter 
should  be  capable  of  being  set  without  the  neces- 
sity of  covering  the  plate  during  the  operation. 
If  the  shutter  does  not  admit  of  this  being  done, 
the  difficulty  can  easily  be  overcome  by  setting 
the  shutter  before  drawing  the  slide  of  the  plate. 
When  photographing  children  or  animals,  the 
best  results  are  obtained  with  a shutter  which 
works  as  noiselessly  as  possible. 

Excellent  forms  of  shutters  are  those  supplied 
with  Iris  diaphragm  and  which  are  provided 
with  the  mechanism  for  making  instantaneous 
time  and  bulb  exposures.  There  are  several 
forms  of  these  now  on  the  market  and  all  are 
provided  with  both  finger  and  pneumatic  bulb 
release,  and  work  automatically  for  instantane- 
ous exposures  from  t-ioo  to  one  second  or  over. 
Figs.  20  and  21  are  illustrations  of  most  popular 
forms. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


47 


Portrait  Shutters. — In  doing  portrait  work  in 
the  studio  with  the  special  portrait  apparatus  the 
lens  used  is  generally  a regular  portrait  objective 
and  is  too  large  in  diameter  to  permit  of  its  being 
fitted  to  any  of  the  ordinary  forms  of  shutters 
which  are  applied  to  viewing  lenses. 

To  overcome  this  difficulty  and  to  permit  of 
instantaneous  work  being  done  with  lenses  of 
this  type,  special  portrait  shutters,  known  as 
Lens  Board  Shutters  (see  Fig.  22)  have  been  de- 
vised. These  are  designed  to  be  fitted  to  the 


Fig.  22. 


back  of  the  lens  board  of  the  camera,  directly  be- 
hind the  lens.  Because  of  their  large  size,  how- 
ever, they  are  adaptable  for  use  only  in  cameras 
having  large  lens  (front)  boards. 

Portrait  shutters  are  also  made  to  fit  over  the 
tube  of  the  lens  at  the  front  but  as  this  form  is 
cumbersome  their  use  is  generally  confined  to 
cases  where  the  photographer  possesses  a cam- 
era with  too  small  a lens-board  to  permit  the 
use  of  a lens-board  shutter  and  a lens  too  large 
in  diameter  to  be  fitted  with  a diaphragm  shut- 
ter. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


THE  PLATE  HOLDER  — THE  ROLL 
HOLDER— THE  TRIPOD— THE  FO- 
CUSING CLOTH— THE  CARRY- 
ING CASE. 

The  Plate  Holder.  (See  Figs.  23-24.) — The 
plate  holder  holds  the  plate  for  exposure  and 
fits  the  camera-back  between  the  ground  glass 
screen  and  the  camera  body.  It  is  not  placed 
in  position  until  after  the  picture  has  been 
focused  on  the  ground-glass  screen.  Then 
when  the  plate  holder  is  inserted  and  the 
slide  drawn,  the  sensitive  side  of  the  plate 


Fig.  23.  Fig.  24. 

Adjustable  Plate  Holder. 

occupies  exactly  the  same  position  as  the 
ground-glass  screen.  Plate  holders  are  generally 
made  to  hold  two  plates  back  to  back,  with  a 
fixed  opaque-division  piece  of  sheet  metal  or 
cardboard  in  between.  This  prevents  the  light 
which  falls  on  one  plate  during  exposure  from 
injuring  the  plate  behind. 

48 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


49 


When  an  exposure  has  been  made  on  one  of 
the  plates  the  holder  is  removed  from  the  cam- 
era, until  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  next  ex- 
posure. It  is  then  replaced  in  a reversed  posi- 
tion, thus  enabling  the  second  plate  to  be  used. 

Most  cameras  as  sold  are  provided  with  one 
double  plate  holder,  but  it  is  advisable  to  pur- 
chase at  least  two  extra,  so  that  when  a day’s 
photographic  outing  is  made,  enough  plates  for 
six  pictures  can  be  taken.  If  three  holders  are 
bought,  they  should  be  numbered  consecutively 
on  both  sides — I and  2,  3 and  4,  5 and  6,  so  that 
the  exposures  may  be  recorded  as  made  and  the 
plates  subsequently  identified  in  the  dark  room. 

The  Cut  Film  Holder. — This  holder  is  identical 
in  external  appearance  with  the  plate  holder. 
It,  however,  differs  somewhat  in  internal  con- 
struction. 

Cut  films  being  much  thinner  than  glass  plates 
and  being' flexible  the  inner  arrangement  of  the 
holder  for  them  is  made  to  suit  their  peculiari- 
ties. 

In  loading  holders  with  cut  films  and  in  ex- 
posing films  in  the  camera  the  directions  are 
exactly  like  those  given  for  dry  plates. 

The  Cartridge  Roll  Holder.  (See  Fig.  25.) — 
This  is  a special  holder  in  which  is  used  film 
wound  upon  spools  and  known  as  film  cartridges. 
These  cartridges  are  light-proof  and  dust-proof 
and  can  be  loaded  into* the  roll  holder  and  taken 
from  same  in  broad  daylight,  thus  rendering  ac- 
cess to  a dark  room  unnecessary  for  these  opera- 
tions. The  cartridge  roll  holder  is  intended  for 
use  with  hand  cameras  and  when  applied  to  a 
plate  camera  is  interchangeable  with  the  plate 
holders  and  cut  film  holders  ordinarily  used  with 
the  apparatus. 


5o 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


The  application  of  a roll  holder  to  a plate 
camera  converts  the  instrument  into  a combina- 
tion plate  and  film  camera,  a most  useful  and 
desirable  apparatus. 

The  Tripod.  (Fig.  26.) — In  choosing  a tripod 
the  great  point  to  study  is  rigidity,  and  also 
worthy  of  consideration,  though  of  lesser  im- 
portance, is  the  question  of  compactness  and 
portability.  The  fewer  the  joints  in  a tripod,  the 


Fig.  25. 


more  rigid  it  is  likely  to  be,  and  for  this  reason  a 
two-fold  is  likely  to  be  better  than  a three-fold 
one,  though  the  latter  can  be  packed  into  a more 
convenient  form  for  carrying.  The  tripod  is  pro- 
vided with  a top  or  head,  of  either  triangular  or 
circular  shape,  and  to  this  head  the  baseboard  of 
the  camera  is  attached  by  means  of  a thumb- 
screw. 

Of  all  the  pieces  in  the  amateur’s  kit,  there  is 
not  one  which  is  so  liable  to  get  lost  or  left  be- 
hind as  this  tripod  screw,  and  therefore  it  should 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


51 


be  attached  by  means  of  a string  or  light  chain 
to  the  tripod  head.  The  tripod  head  should  be 
covered  with  felt  or  leather,  as  the  camera  can 
then  be  screwed  down  without  receiving 
scratches  or  other  damage. 


Focusing  Cloth. — A focusing  cloth  will  be  re- 
quired to  shut  out  the  light  from  around  the 
ground  glass  screen  when  focusing,  to  enable  the 
operator  to  see  his  subject  on  the  glass  to  ad- 
vantage. A focusing  cloth  may  be  of  gossamer, 
rubber  or  ladies  cloth  and  be  purchased  ready- 
made. 

Carrying  Case. — Having  collected  the  various 
pieces  of  his  outfit,  the  amateur  will  require  a 
case  to  carry  them.  For  ordinary  traveling,  a 
canvas  case  is  sufficient,  but  if  the  case  is  to  con- 
tain the  entire  apparatus,  it  should  be  provided 
with  a broad  strap  and  grip  handle. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


THE  DEVELOPING  AND  PRINTING  OUT- 
FIT. 

The  Ruby  Lamp. — As  will  be  explained  in  an- 
other chapter,  the  sensitive  plates  upon  which  the 
photographs  are  taken  must  not  be  allowed  to  re- 


ceive the  faintest  trace  of  white  light  or  daylight 
except  that  which  reaches  them  when  the  expos- 
ure is  made  in  the  camera.  They  are,  however, 
practically  unaffected  by  a deep  ruby-colored 
light,  and,  therefore,  the  operation  of  opening  a 
packet  of  plates  to  fill  the  camera,  and  the  later 

52 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


53 


operations  of  developing  and  fixing,  must  either 
be  carried  on  in  perfect  darkness  or  by  the  aid  of 
a lamp  fitted  with  ruby-colored  glass.  An  al- 
ternative method,  when  the  above  operations  are 
performed  in  the  daytime,  is  to  cover  the  window 
of  the  room  used  for  this  purpose  with  a ruby 
cloth  or  fabric,  but  as  this  will  be  referred  to 
again  in  the  chapter  on  development,  I will  at 
present  only  consider  the  question  of  lamps.  The 
cheapest  form  of  ruby  lamp  has  a metal  top  and 
bottom,  the  body  being  made  of  a square  metal 
frame,  covered  with  ruby  cloth  or  fabric.  The 
top  and  bottom  portions  of  this  lamp  can  be  taken 
off,  and  the  body  folded  up  flat,  so  that  the  whole 
thing  can  be  packed  in  a shallow  cardboard  box. 
The  light  is  obtained  by  placing  inside  the  lamp 
a small  night  lamp  or  the  end  of  a candle.  This 
form  of  lamp  is  very  useful  for  changing  plates 
or  for  occasional  developing  when  traveling,  but 
it  is  hardly  substantial  enough  for  everyday 
work.  It  is  better  to  buy  a lamp  with  a good 
metal  body  and  fitted  with  a burner  for  oil.  It 
should  be  capable  of  holding  a fair  supply  of  oil 
and  the  device  for  raising  the  wick  should  be 
accessible  from  the  outside  of  the  lamp.  (See 
Figs.  27-28.) 

Although  the  color  of  the  glass  in  the  lamp 
may  be  red,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that 
the  light  which  passes  through  it  does  not  affect 
the  plate  to  some  degree.  In  order  to  determine 
whether  or  not  the  light  is  actually  safe,  the  fol- 
lowing plan  may  be  adopted:  Place  a plate  in 

the  plate  holder  in  the  usual  way.  Then  close 
the  holder  and  draw  the  slide  so  that  four-fifths 
of  the  plate  are  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  lamp. 
Leave  the  slide  in  this  position  for,  say,  two  min- 


54 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


utes.  Then  push  the  slide  in  so  that  only  three- 
fifths  of  the  plate  are  exposed,  and  leave  for  an- 
other two  minutes.  Then  again  push  the  slide 
in  so  that  only  two-fifths  are  exposed,  and  leave 
for  four  minutes  this  time.  Then  push  the  slide 
so  that  it  leaves  only  one-fifth  of  the  plate  ex- 
posed, and  leave  this  open  for  another  ten  min- 
utes. Thus  one  portion  of  the  plate  has  not  been 
exposed  at  all,  the  next  has  had  two  minutes’  ex- 
posure, the  next,  four  minutes,  the  next  eight 
minutes  and  the  last  eighteen  minutes.  The  plate 
should  then  be  developed  in  the  ordinary  way,  as 
explained  in  Chapter  on  Developing,  and  it  will 
be  readily  seen  by  comparison  with  the  appear- 
ance of  the  exposed  part  how  far  the  light  has  af- 
fected- the  remaining  portions  of  the  sensitive 
surface.  The  actual  time  that  a plate  is  exposed 
to  the  light  of  the  lamp  during  an  ordinary  case 
of  development  is  not  above,  say,  two  minutes,  so 
that  if  this  exposure  to  the  lamp  produces  no  in- 
jurious effect  the  light  may  be  regarded  as  fairly 
safe.  The  process  of  developing  and  fixing  of 
course  takes  longer  than  two  minutes,  but  all 
careful  workers  make  a point  of  keeping  the  plate 
carefully  screened  from  the  direct  rays  of  the 
lamp,  except  wh?n  a close  scrutiny  of  the  image 
is  necessary. 


Developing  Trays. — The  smallest  number  of 
dishes  which  will  be  required  for  developing  the 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


55 


negative  is  two,  one  for  the  developing  solution 
and  one  for  the  fixing  solution ; but  an  extra  dish 
should  be  procured,  however,  as  in  some  in- 
stances an  alum  bath  is  required.  These  dishes 
are  made  in  various  materials,  such  as  porcelain, 
fibre  and  rubber.  It  does  not  matter  very  much 
which  of  these  materials  is  selected.  Fibre 
dishes  are,  perhaps,  as  cheap  as  any,  and  they 
are  also  very  light.  The  dishes  chosen  may  be 
purchased  stamped  with  the  letters  T,  D and  F, 
which  mean : Toning,  Fixing,  Developing. 

(See  Fig.  29.)  This  will  make  it  easy  to  always 
keep  the  same  dish  for  the  same  purpose — a pre- 
caution which  should  invariably  be  adopted. 


Fig.  30. 


Toning  Trays. — The  dishes  employed  for  ton- 
ing should  be  deeper  than  those  used  for  devel- 
oping, as  it  is  usual  to  tone  a number  of  prints 
together  in  the  same  dish,  and  there  should  be 
plenty  of  room  for  the  prints  to  be  always  kept 
on  the  move.  Perhaps  rubber  or  fibre  dishes  are 
the  best  for  this  purpose,  and  to  facilitate  manip- 
ulation of  the  prints  the  dishes  should  preferably 
be  a size  or  two  larger  than  those  used  for  de- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


56 


velopment.  (See  Fig.  30.)  Two  dishes  will  be 
required,  one  for  fixing  and  one  for  toning.  In 
thus  stating  the  number  of  dishes  required  it  is 
assumed  that  the  amateur  will  be  able  to  obtain 


the  use  of  some  large  sized  domestic  dishes, 
which  are  very  useful  for  washing  plates  and 
papers.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  a few  large  trays 
for  this  purpose  should  be  purchased. 


Scales.  (See  Fig.  31.' 
weighing  out  the  various 


ltllH 

Fig.  31. 


— For  the  purpose  of 
chemicals  employed  in 
mixing  solutions,  the 
amateur  will  require  a 
small  pair  of  scales. 
The  chief  point  to  be 
considered  is  that  the 
pan  in  which  the  sub- 
stance to  be  weighed 
is  placed  should  be 
made  of  glass.  Glass 
is  preferable  to  brass 
in  that  it  is  not  likely 
to  have  any  contami- 
nating effect  on  the 


substance  placed  therein,  and 
also  it  is  much  easier  to  keep 
clean. 

Graduated  Glass  Measures. 

— These  are  required  for 
measuring  and  mixing  solu- 
tions, and  two  of  different  ca- 
pacities should  be  obtained. 
Usually  a two-ounce  meas- 
ure and  a four-ounce  meas- 
ure are  all  that  will  be  re- 
quired. 


Fig.  32. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  57 

Printing  Frame. — When  a plate  has  been  ex- 
posed and  developed,  it  is  termed  a negative, 
and  from  the  negative  thus  produced,  paper  pos- 
itives, or  “prints,”  are  made  by  placing  the  sen- 
sitive surface  of  a piece  of 
prepared  paper  in  contact 
with  the  negative  and  expos- 
ing it  to  daylight.  To  facil- 
itate this  operation  a “print- 
ing-frame” is  employed,, 
made  something  like  an  or- 
dinary picture  frame,  but 
with  a removable  back.  The 
back  is  pressed  down  b\j 
springs,  and  thus  keeps  the 
paper  in  close  contact  with 
the  negative.  In  most  prints 
ing  frames  the  back  is  made 
in  halves,  so  that  one-half 
can  be  raised  occasionally 
during  the  printing  pro- 
cess, to  ascertain  what 
progress  the  printing  is  making.  (See  Fig.  33.) 
Printing  frames  are  generally  made  of  some  hard- 
wood, and  that  portion  of  the  frame  whereon  the 
negative  rests  should  be  perfectly  flat,  otherwise 
the  pressure  of  the  springs  may  cause  the  glass 
to  fracture. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


DRY  PLATES  — SHEET  FILMS  — FILM 
CARTRIDGES 

Dry  Plates  and  Celluloid  Films. — A photo- 
graphic plate  depends  for  its  action  upon  the  fact 
that  the  salt  known  to  chemists  as  bromide  of 
silver,  when  associated  with  some  organic  mat- 
ter such  as  gelatine,  has  conferred  upon  it  by 
even  a momentary  flash  of  light  the  property  of 
turning  to  metallic  silver  when  subjected  to 
the  action  of  certain  chemicals.  That  is  to  say, 
when  a piece  of  glass,  coated  with  bromide  of 
silver  and  gelatine,  is  exposed  in  a photographic 
camera,  all  those  portions  upon  which  the  light 
has  fallen  are,  in  some  subtle  manner,  which  no 
one  understands,  changed  in  nature,  so  that  when 
treated  with  a chemical  solution,  called  the  “de- 
veloper,” they  are  darkened,  while  those  parts 
which  have  not  been  affected  by  light  remain  in 
their  pristine  whiteness. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  here  that  red  light 
has  little  power  over  a photographic  plate.  White 
light  is  composed  of  all  the  colors  of  the  rain- 
bow, mixed  in  certain  definite  proportions,  and 
also  of  a certain  amount  of  light  which  is  in- 
visible— light  which  is  of  such  deep  red  color 
that  to  our  eyes  it  appears  simply  black,  and  the 
light  which  is  so  highly  violet,  as  it  were,  that  we 
cannot  see  it  at  all.  The  violet  rays  and  the  ultra 
violet  rays  have  the  greatest  effect  upon  the 
photographic  plate,  and  the  power  of  the  rays 
diminishes  as  you  get  farther  away  from  the 
violet  end  of  the  spectrum,  until — except  under 

58 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


59 


certain  conditions,  which  will  be  explained  later 
on — you  come  to  the  yellow,  orange,  red  and  in- 
fra red,  where  the  effect  is  almost  nil.  A photo- 
graphic plate"  is  not  materially  affected  by  red 
light,  and  this  peculiarity  gives  the  photographer 
an  opportunity  of  conducting  all  those  operations 
which  would  otherwise  have  to  be  gone  through 
in  the  dark,  by  the  aid  of  a light  with  which  he 
is  able  to  see  what  he  is  doing. 

The  photographer  should  decide  at  the  outset 
upon  one  brand  of  plates  and  stick  to  it  until 
he  has  mastered  the  initial  stages  of  his  art.  He 
should  not  blame  the  results  of  his  own  faults 
upon  the  plate-maker  and  try  his  luck  with  an- 
other brand,  for  that  leads  to  confusion. 

Each  different  kind  has  its  peculiarities,  which 
must  be  studied  to  be  understood,  and  this  un- 
derstanding will  never  be  arrived  at  by  changing 
from  one  brand  to  another  in  the  hope  of  find- 
ing one  upon  which  a careless  photographer  will 
be  able  to  produce  a good  negative.  The  no- 
madic photographer — and  most  amateurs  come 
under  this  head,  for,  in  the  practice  of  their  art, 
they  wander  about  the  country  in  search  of  the 
picturesque — should  decide  upon  a popular  make 
of  plate  that  he  is  reasonably  sure  he  can  pro- 
cure in  any  out-of-the-way  town. 

When  the  photographic  student  sees  for  the 
first  time  a certain  make  of  plates  advertised  un- 
der the  name  of  “Orthochromatic,”-  he  is  quite 
at  a loss  to  understand  what  particular  peculiari- 
ties are  implied  by  this  curious  title.  Nor  will  he 
be  much  enlightened  if  he  be  told  that  the  alter- 
native name  for  precisely  the  same  thing  is  “Iso- 
chromatic.  ” The  former  word  signifies  “correct 
color,”  while  the  meaning  of  the  latter  is  “equal 
color,”  and  as  photography  up  to  the  present  is 


6o 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


quite  independent  of  color  of  any  description,  it 
being  unable  to  reproduce  any  of  the  various 
tints  and  shades  of  nature  by  a direct  photo- 
graphic process — it  is  difficult  to  see  just  where 
the  application  of  these  words  comes  in. 

The  idea  that  these  adjectives  are  intended  to 
convey  when  applied  to  a photographic  plate,  is 
that  it  is  capable  of  reproducing  colored  objects 
in  their  correct  tone-relation  to  one  another. 
Everybody  knows  who  has  had  a photograph  ta- 
ken that  ordinary  photography  is  not  able  to  do 
this.  Not  only  does  it  translate  all  color  into 
sober  monochrome,  but  the  tints  which  it  chooses 
in  representing  any  given  hue  are  generally  of  a 
very  different  shade  from  that  which  we  would 
select  as  being  of  equivalent  light-value.  A lady 
who  goes  to  the  photographer  to  have  her  por- 
trait taken,  in  a bright  red  dress,  finds,  to  her 
dismay,  when  the  proofs  come  home,  that,  as  far 
as  that  garment  is  concerned,  she  appears  to  be 
in  deepest  mourning,  while  her  peacock-blue 
bonnet  is  represented  as  being  nearly  white. 

But  if  the  photographer  who  has  to  depict  so 
trying  a subject  were  to  use  isochromatic  plates 
the  red  dress  would  appear  of  an  equivalent 
shade  of  gray  instead  of  black,  while  the  blue, 
instead  of  appearing  white  or  nearly  so,  would 
be  of  a somewhat  lighter  shade  of  grey — in  fact, 
the  colors  would  be  reproduced  just  as  a painter 
would  show  them  if  told  to  translate  the  subject 
into  black  and  white. 

This  result  is  brought  about  by  treating  the 
plates  in  the  course  of  their  manufacture  to  a 
staining  process  with  one  of  the  yellow  aniline 
dyes  which  gives  to  the  bromide  of  silver  emul- 
sion a much  lighter  degree  of  sensitiveness  to 
yellow  and  red  light.  Still,  the  most  highly 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


61 


color-sensitized  plates  are  far  more  susceptible 
to  the  action  of  what  are  generally  called  the 
actinic  rays — those  which  form  the  blue  and 
violet  portions  of  the  spectrum — and  before  such 
plates  can  be  made  to  yield  correctly-toned 
photographs,  this  super-activity  of  the  blue  and 
violet  rays  must  be  reduced  to  a proportionate 
potential  by  filtering  out  a great  number  of  them 
and  allowing  only  a suitable  quantity  to  pass. 
A piece  of  what  we  call  yellow  glass  only  ap- 
pears to  us  to  be  yellow  because  it  has  the  power 
of  stopping  all  the  rays  of  which  light  is  made 
up,  except  those  which  produce  the  effect  which 
we  describe  as  yellow,  and  from  these  rays,  which 
are  the  only  ones  to  reach  our  eyes,  we  get  the 
impression  that  the  piece  of  glass  is  yellow. 

Now,  if  a piece  of  pale  yellow  glass,  or  stained 
gelatine  be  placed  in  the  lens  of  the  camera  in 
such  a way  that  all  the  light  has  to  filter  through 
it,  a large  proportion  of  the  blue  and  violet  light 
coming  from  the  objects  being  photographed 
will  be  absorbed,  and  a very  much  smaller  quan- 
tity will  reach  the  photographic  plate,  while  the 
red  and  yellow  rays  will  pass  unobstructed. 
Then,  if  a plate  be  used  which  has  been  rendered 
sensitive  to  the  yellow  rays  in  the  manner  al- 
ready mentioned,  a photograph  will  be  produced 
in  which  the  various  colors  of  nature  will  be  rep- 
resented by  different  shades  of  grey  of  a tone- 
value  which  will  appear  to  be  equivalent  to  the 
tone-values  of  the  original  colors. 

This  process  refutes  the  charge  that  photog- 
raphy cannot  produce  colors  in  their  equivalent 
shade  of  monochrome.  By  its  aid  all  branches  of 
photography  are  improved.  Landscapes  are  ren- 
dered in  a far  more  life-like  and  natural  man- 
ner, for  the  bright  green  trees  do  not  appeal  in 


62 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


the  old  photography.  But  it  is  more  in  photo- 
graphing flowers  or  copying  paintings  that  the 
funereal  aspect  which  was  characteristic  of 
orthochromatic  process  appears  to  best  advan- 
tage ; for  in  these  the  colors  are  of  a more  lively 
nature  and  of  a kind  to  aggravate  the  faults  of 
the  ordinary  photography. 

The  introduction  of  a yellow  screen  into  the 
lens  prolongs  the  necessary  exposure  to  light 
to  about  twice  to  four  times  the  time  it  would 
otherwise  require,  because  it  filters  out  many  of 
the  more  active  rays.  This  is  one  thing  which 
is  to  be  borne  in  mind  when  using  the  process, 
and  the  other  is  that  the  plates,  being  far  more 
sensitive  to  red  light  than  those  of  the  ordinary 
kind,  very  much  greater  care  is  required  in  hand- 
ling them  in  the  dark-room.  Only  a very  small 
amount  of  light  of  the  deepest  ruby  color  obtain- 
able must  be  allowed  to  reach  the  sensitive  sur- 
face at  any  time  until  after  development  is  com- 
pleted, and  this  necessity  for  working  in  such 
deep  gloom  is  certainly  a great  drawback  to  the 
process.  But  where  paintings  and  flowers  have 
to  be  photographed,  or  it  is  desired  to  reproduce 
special  effects  in  nature  where  the  colors  are  of 
a kind  to  be  spoiled  if  ordinary  plates  are  used, 
the  disadvantages  of  the  process  are  well  worth 
braving. 

Celluloid  Films  are  coated  with  the  sensitive 
emulsion,  as  well  as  glass  plates,  and  in  many 
cases  the  traveling  photographer  will  do  well  to 
employ  them,  for  they  have  some  advantages 
over  plates.  They  are  much  lighter,  and  a gross 
of  cut  films  occupies  but  little  more  space  than 
a dozen  glass  plates.  Glass  plates  and  celluloid 
films  can  in  many  cases  be  procured  from  the 
same  makers  and  may  be  treated  exactly  alike, 
both  as  regards  exposure  and  development. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


63 


These  films  are  put  up  in  two  forms,  viz. : Cut 
(or  sheet)  films  and  film  cartridges. 

The  cut  films  are  exactly  like  dry  plates,  ex- 
cept that  as  a support  for  the  sensitive  emulsion 
a sheet  of  celluloid  is  used  instead  of  glass. 
These  films  are  cut  into  standard  sizes  and  are 
put  up  one  dozen  in  a package  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  as  dry  plates.  They  are  used  by 
means  of  cut  film  holders  and  are  loaded  into  the 
holders  and  exposed  in  the  camera  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  are  dry  plates. 

Film  Cartridges. — These  are  adaptable  for  use 
only  in  that  class  of  hand  cameras  generally  de- 
scribed as  Kodaks  and  in  cartridge  roll  holders. 

It  is  upon  the  film  cartridge  that 
the  success  of  the  Kodak  system  is 
based.  It  is  this  that  has  made  pocket 
photography  practical  and  has  made  it 
possible  to  do  away  with  the  dark 
room  in  unloading  the  camera. 

A wooden  spool  with  a flange  on 
each  end,  between  which  flanges  is 
wound  a long  strip  of  black  paper,  is 
the  simple  principle  of  the  film  cart- 
ridge. (See  Fig.  34.)  Attached  to 
the  inner  side  of  the  black  paper  is  a 
Fig.  34.  strip  of  film  ; the  film  strip,  however, 
is  several  inches  shorter  than  the  paper  strip, 
and  when  all  is  wound  on  the  spool  no  light  can 
touch  the  film. 

When  all  the  exposures  in  the  cartridge  have 
been  made  the  exposed  cartridge  is  removed  in 
daylight  without  danger  of  injury. 

The  black  paper  running  the  full  length  of  the 
film,  extending  beyond  each  end  and  threading 
into  the  “carrying  spool”  and  into  the  “winding 
reel,”  takes  all  the  tension.  There  is  no  strain 


64 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


on  the  film  (which  is  carried  along  by  the  black 
paper),  and  there  are  no  joints  of  film  and  paper 
to  give  way  under  the  pull  of  the  winding  reel. 

Cartridge  films  are  procurable  containing 
either  two,  four,  six  or  twelve  exposures,  or 
"double-two.”  The  “double-two”  cartridges,  as 
the  name  implies,  contain  film  for  four  exposures, 
but  are  so  wound  that  two  exposures  may  be 
made  and  then  removed  in  daylight  and  the  re- 
maining two  exposures  threaded  up  for  further 
use ; or,  if  preferred,  the  operator  may  make  the 
entire  four  exposures  with  a single  loading,  and 
he  has  the  option,  until  making  ready  for  the 
third  exposure,  of  handling  the  film  in  either 
way. 

Exposures  with  cartridge  film  are  the  same  as 
given  for  plates^and  cut  films.  Development  of 
the  negative  is  practically  the  same  as  instruc- 
tions given  for  developing  plates.  However, 
some  special  instructions  in  .regard  to  handling 
them  are  necessary,  and  these  appear  in  Chapter 
on  “Developing.” 


CHAPTER  IX. 


LOADING  THE  FILM  CAMERA  AND 
ROLL  HOLDER  — LOADING  THE 
PLATE-HOLDER— FOCUSING. 

Let  it  now  be  assumed  that  the  embryo  pho- 
tographer has  provided  himself  with  the  various 
component  parts  of  his  equipment  and  is  anxious 
to  begin  active  operations.  The  first  step  is  to 

Get  Acquainted  with  the  Camera. — “How  shall 
it  be  loaded?”  This  is  the  first  question  which 
suggests  itself  to  ninety-nine  people  out  of  one 
hundred,  and  the  answer  is,  “Do  not  load  it — at 
least,  not  until  its  workings  are  fully  under- 
stood.” 

The  shutter  should  first  be  tried  and  worked 
several  times  for  both  time  and  instantaneous 
exposures,  until  perfect  familiarity  with  its  ac- 
tion is  obtained.  Careful  note  of  the  diaphragms 
or  stops  should  be  made,  and  the  fact  will  be  dis- 
closed that  with  the  largest  opening  the  greatest 
quantity  of  light  will  pass  through  the  lens  in 
a given  time.  This  will  demonstrate  why  the 
larger  openings  for  snapshots  and  the  smaller 
ones  for  time  exposures  are  used.  Having  mas- 
tered the  shutter  and  the  focusing  arrangement, 
if  there  is  one  on  the  camera  used,  and  having 
obtained  a slight  idea  of  the  conditions  neces- 
sary for  successful  picture  taking,  the  instrument 
may  be  loaded. 

Camera  (or  Plate  Holder)  Loading. — With  a 
kodak  or  cartridge  roll  holder  this  operation  is 
performed  in  daylight  and  is  very  simple.  The 
film  is  put  up  in  light-tight  rolls,  and  extending 

65 


66 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


the  full  length  of  the  strip  of  film  and  several 
inches  beyond  each  end  is  a strip  of  black  paper, 
which,  in  connection  with  the  flanges  on  the 
spool,  forms  a light-proof  cartridge. 

After  inserting  the  spool  and  threading  up  the 
black  paper  the  camera  is  closed  and  the  key 
turned  until  the  black  paper  has  been  reeled  off 
and  the  sensitive  film  brought  into  place  in  the 
focal  plane.  The  black  paper  runs  with  and  be- 
hind the  film,  and  at  proper  intervals  is  marked 
in  white  with  the  number  of  the  section  of  film, 
i,  2,  3,  etc.  In  the  back  of  the  camera  is  a small 
red  window,  through  which  the  figures  appear 
as  the  key  is  turned.  These  figures  show  just 
how  far  to  turn  the  key  and  how  many  expos- 
ures have  been  made.  After  all  th$  exposures 
have  been  made  a few  extra  turns  of  the  key 
entirely  covers  the  film  with  black  paper,  and 
the  camera  may  be  unloaded  in  daylight. 

It  is  all  very  simple,  and  with  each  camera 
is  a manual  for  the  guidance  of  the  student.  The 
amateur  must  bear  constantly  in  mind,  however, 
that  the  black  paper  must  be  kept  tightly  rolled 
about  the  film  all  of  the  time  until  it  is  in  place 
and  the  camera  closed,  for  should  the  film  be  ex- 
posed to  daylight  for  even  a hundredth  part  of 
a second  its  ruin  would  be  accomplished. 

Loading  with  Plates. — Assuming  that  the  am- 
ateur is  operating  a plate  camera,  and  has  de- 
cided upon  the  brand  of  plates  or  films  he  will 
use,  he  should  be  reminded  that  the  treatment 
for  sheet  films  is  precisely  the  same  as  that 
for  plates,  concerning  loading  and  exposures, 
and  the  following  instructions  will  there- 
fore apply  to  both  unless  otherwise  stated. 
The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  place  the  plate 
or  film  in  the  plate-holder.  Remember,  the 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


67 


plate  is  very  sensitive  to  light-sensitive  in 
a way  that  few  beginners  can  understand  or  cal- 
culate. Very  great  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  dark  room  is  safe,  that  no  extraneous  light 
is  allowed  to  enter,  for  if  it  does  all  future  ef- 
forts will  be  useless.  The  best  test  is  for  the 
operator  to  shut  himself  up  in  a dark  room  until 
his  eyes  have  become  accustomed  to  the  gloom, 
and  if  he  then  detects  no  light  filtering  into  the 
room  he  may  consider  it  “safe/’  but  if  any  rays  or 
gleams  are  observed  entering  under  the  door  or 
through  crevices  around  the  blocked  up  window 
the  apertures  should  be  tightly  closed. 

The  lamp  by  whose  light  the  operations  are  to 
be  conducted  must  not  necessarily  be  considered 
“safe”  because  it  is  glazed  with  red  glass,  but  it 
must  shed  a particular  quality  of  red  light  and 
not  too  much  of  it. 

First  dust  out  the  inside  of  all  the  plate-holders, 
for  every  grain  of  dust  that  settles  on  the  plates 
will  leave  a little  white  speck  upon  the  finished 
negative.  Then,  as  far  away  from  the  red  light 
as  practicable  to  see,  open  the  packet  of  plates. 
Every  pair  will  be  face  to  face,  with  a piece  of 
card  at  the  edges  to  prevent  them  from  actually 
touching  one  another.  If  there  is  any  doubt  as 
to  which  is  the  face,  remember  that  the  shiny 
side  is  the  plain  glass — or  celluloid  film,  as  the 
case  may  be — and  that,  of  course,  is  the  back. 
Put  them  in  the  plate-holder,  one  in  each  side. 
The  sensitized  side  of  the  plate  has  to  face  the 
lens  of  the  camera,  so  that  the  plate  must  be 
placed  in  the  plate-holder  with  the  dull  side  next 
the  slide. 

All  the  holders  having  been  charged  in  this 
manner  and  securely  closed  before  leaving  the 
shelter  of  the  dark  room,  the  photographer  is 


68 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


ready  for  work,  and  for  a beginner  the  subject 
should  be  a landscape  or  something  of  that  char- 
acter, as  portraiture  is  the  most  difficult  branch 
of  photography. 

Focusing. — Before  proceeding  to  compose  the 
picture  or  to  make  the  exposures  it  is  necessary 
for  the  amateur  to  learn  what  this  much  used 
word  ‘‘focus”  signifies.  The  term  focus  means 
bringing  the  rays  of  light  forming  the  picture 
through  the  lens  to  a point  where  they  are 
shown  clear  and  distinct  upon  the  ground  glass 
or  similar  surface.  In  a scene  or  image  slightly 
out  of  focus  the  lines  will  be  blurred  and  run 
into  each  other,  appearing  to  the  naked  eye  some- 
what like  a house  seen  in  the  distance  through  a 
very  heavy  fog.  With  a fixed  focus  camera  the 
lens  is  constructed  and  adjusted  in  the  camera 
by  the  manufacturer  so  that  all  objects  that  come 
within  the  range  of  the  lens  will  be  in  focus 
where  the  plate-holder  is  placed.  The  adjust- 
able focus  camera  is  constructed  with  a ground 
glass  screen  at  the  back  of  the  earner^  and  be- 
tween it  and  the  lens  is  a flexible  bellows  which 
can  be  operated  to  bring  the  lens  and  ground 
glass  nearer  together  or  farther  apart  as  the  case 
may  require.  For  instance,  where  the  objects 
to  be  photographed  are  close  at  hand,  the  lens 
and  ground  glass  should  be  extended ; for  ob- 
jects farther  away  the  lens  and  ground  glass 
should  be  brought  nearer  together.  In  making 
this  adjustment  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the 
image  or  picture  on  the  ground  glass  to  deter- 
mine when  it  is  clear  and  sharp.  The  image  will 
appear  to  better  advantage  if  the  light  is  ex- 
cluded between  the  eye  and  the  ground  glass 
screen.  This  is  accomplished  by  putting  the 
camera  on  a tripod  and  placing  a cloth  over  the 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


69 


head  and  camera,  excluding  the  light;  this  is 
commonly  called  a “focusing  cloth.”  The  opera- 
tion is  called  focusing.  (See  Fig.  35.)  In  order 
to  get  as  sharp  a negative  on  the  plate  as  ap- 
pears on  the  ground  glass  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  the  plate,  when  inserted  in  the  camera 
box,  be  placed  exactly  the  same  distance  from 


Fig.  35. 


the  lens  to  the  ground  glass  as  it  was  at  the  time 
of  focusing.  The  squares  of  ground  glass  in 
frames  and  plate-holders  are  supposed  to  be  ac- 
curately adjusted  in  harmony  with  each  other  to 
produce  this  effect ; where  such  is  not  the  case, 
as  sometimes  happens,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
have  the  register  between  the  two  accurately  re- 
adjusted. 


CHAPTER  X. 


LANDSCAPE  PHOTOGRAPHY— ARCHI- 
TECTURAL SUBJECTS. 


Lighting  and  Composition. — The  next  pro- 
gressive step  in  the  ama- 
teur’s experience  is  the 
arrangement  or  composi- 
tion of  his  picture.  Into 
this  the  proper  lighting  of 
his  subject  enters  as  a 
most  important  factor. 

A rule  may  be  laid 
down  and  followed  in  re- 
gard to  lighting.  The 
principal  source  of  light 
should  come  either  from 
the  upper  right  or  the 
left  of  the  scene.  A scene 
photographed  with  the 
sun  directly  at  the  back  of 
the  camera  will  usually  be 
flat  or  tame  in  photo- 
graphic effect,  because  no 
shadows  are  visible ; nei- 
ther should  the  sun  be  di- 
rectly in  front  of  the  lens, 
as  the  scene  would  consist 
of  nearly  all  shadows.  An 
exception  to  this  rule  can 
grand  canon  of  Arizona,  be  applied  to  marine 
Negative  by  T.  S.  Baldwin.  views  ; the  greatest 
amount  of  shadow  obtain- 
able in  these  gives  the  boldest  results. 


70 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


7 1 


Painters  say  that  the  trouble  with  photog- 
raphy is  that  it  reproduces  with  perfect  fidelity 
the  unimportant  details  of  nature,  but  fails  to 
portray  her  strength  and  character,  her  subtle 
moods,  her  broad  effects.  But  occasionally  the 
camera  falls  into  the  hands  of  an  artist  who  han- 
dles it  with  the  master’s  touch,  and  painters  and 
sculptors  and  critics  must  applaud. 

Too  much  detail  is  the  weak  point  in  nine  out 
of  every  ten  landscape  photographs.  The  aim 
of  the  artistic  photographer  should  be  to  pre- 
serve in  his  pictures  that  freedom  from  inappro- 
priate objects  and  superfluity  of  detail  which,  by 
detracting  from  their  simplicity,  destroy  their 
real  strength  and  value. 

A “pretty  bit”  is  always  preferable  to  a “gen- 
eral view.”  It  centers  the  interest.  A whole 
township  on  a single  plate  is  inartistic  unless 
the  township  consists  of  a towering  peak  which 
of  itself  is  a picture.  (See  Figs.  36-37.) 

Avoid  giving  the  pic- 
ture a mechanical  look  by 
breaking  up,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  straight  lines, 
yet  preserving  enough  of 
them  so  that  it  will  not  be 
a jumble.  Do  not  bring 
the  horizon  line,  especial- 
ly if  it  be  unbroken,  across 
the  center  of  the  picture, 
but  have  it  either  above  or 
below  the  center.  On  the 
other  hand,  to  be  success- 
ful, a picture  must  be  well 
balanced  in  light  and 
shade,  or  it  will  appear  to 
be  “ lop  - sided.”  Some 


Fig.  37. 

LOG  TRAIN  IN  THE 
WOODS. 

Negative  by  T.  S.  Baldwin. 


72 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


workers,  and  good  ones,  too,  claim  that  in  composi- 
tion certain  geometrical  figures  must  be  followed — 
the  triangle,  the  semicircle,  etc. — but  if  the  forego- 
ing hints  be  borne  in  mind  they  will  suffice  for  the 
beginner,  will  start  him  in  the  right  direction  and 
later  on,  when  he  has  had  a few  lessons  in  the 
school  of  experience,  he  can  if  he  likes,  take  up  a 
more  detailed  study  of  the  rules  of  composition. 

Exposing. — The  first  difficulty  which  presents 
itself  is  the  length  of  exposure.  How  long  shall 
the  shutter  be  allowed  to  remain  open  ? is  the 
question,  and  it  is  a most  difficult  one  to  an- 
swer. Assuming  that  the  photographer  pos- 
sesses only  one  lens,  that  he  has  decided  to  keep 
to  one  size  of  stop  for  the  present — say  F-32 — 
and  that  he  intends  only  to  use  one  speed  of 
plates,  three  of  the  several  factors  which  govern 
the  length  of  the  exposure  are  fixed  and  the  mat- 
ter is  considerably  simplified,  but  the  chief  fac- 
tors which  remain  are  the  nature  of  the  subject 
and  the  quality  of  the  light  with  which  it  is  illu- 
minated. 

An  old  adage  says  that  exposure  should  be 
made  for  the  shadows  and  let  the  high  lights 
take  care  of  themselves.  The  darkest  portions 
are  to  be  found  among  the  trees,  and  as  a gen- 
eral rule  it  may  be  taken  that  the  nearer  the 
object  is  to  the  camera  the  longer  will  be  the 
exposure  it  will  require,  for  there  is  less  of  that 
ever-present  haze  between  it  and  the  lens,  and 
that  haze,  often  invisible,  reflects  into  the  camera 
a considerable  quantity  of  the  kind  of  light 
which  affects  the  plate.  Let  it  be  assumed  that 
a summer’s  day  has  been  chosen,  and  the  ex- 
posure is  to  be  made  somewhere  towards  noon. 
The  stop  is  F-32,  and  the  plate  a slow  one.  An 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


73 


exposure  of  three  seconds  should  be  about  right, 
but  there  are  so  many  things  which  have  a modi- 
fying effect  upon  it  that  it  is  quite  impossible 
to  give  more  than  the  merest  idea  of  its  length. 
To  expose  correctly  can  only  be  learned  by  con- 
siderable experience,  by  repeated  trials  and  care- 
ful comparisons  of  the  results.  Full  directions 
will  be  given  in  the  chapter  in  which  develop- 
ment comes  under  consideration,  by  which  the 
novice  can  tell  whether  he  has  erred  on  the  side 
of  over  or  under  exposure,  and  he  will  soon  learn 
to  estimate  pretty  correctly  the  approximate  ex- 
tent of  the  error.  A few  trials  made  with  intelli- 
gence will  speedily  give  him  a very  good  idea 
as  to  the  duration  of  the  exposure  for  a given 
subject  under  given  conditions,  and  from  the 
knowledge,  thus  gained  he  will  be  able  to  calcu- 
late the  correct  exposures  for  other  conditions. 

This  same  view  made  the  subject  of  a photo- 
graph at  midday  in  the  winter  would  require  an 
exposure  of  longer  duration,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  light.  Or,  again,  towards  evening, 
even  in  the  middle  of  summer,  when  the  sun  is 
in  the  west,  and  the  whole  landscape  is  bathed 
in  the  reddening  rays  of  the  setting  sun,  the 
three  seconds’  exposure  may  be  multiplied  with- 
out fear  of  the  picture  being  overdone.  It  is  im- 
possible to  teach  the  art  of  correct  exposure ; it 
will  only  come  as  the  result  of  experience.  The 
beginner  should  do  his  best  to  keep  the  condi- 
tions as  invariable  as  possible ; that  is  to  say, 
he  should,  just  at  first,  keep  to  one  class  of  sub- 
ject and  one  time  of  day,  as  well  as  to  one  lens 
and  one  plate.  Then  he  can  get  his  exposure 
right  with  very  little  trouble  for  that  one  set  of 
factors. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  finished  photograph 
should  show  a fair  amount  of  detail,  but  in  secur- 


74 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


ing  this  result  care  must  be  exercised  in  order 
not  to  over-expose  the  distant  hills  so  that  they 
become  merged  in  the  sky  and  get  lost.  If  in 
the  developed  negative  the  landscape  stands  out 
almost  white,  while  the  sky  is  a dense  black,  and 
the  hills  much  too  plainly  marked,  the  exposure 
has  been  too  short,  and  the  result  is  extreme  con- 
trasts of  black  and  white,  with  no  delicate  half- 
tones and  an  absolute  lack  of  detail  in  all  the 
deeper  shadows.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is 
any  amount  of  detail  in  the  landscape,  while  the 
sky  is  a thin  gray,  with  the  hills  invisible,  and 
there  is  a general  dullness  and  lack  of  contrast 
about  the  whole  thing,  it  may  be  safely  surmised 
that  over-exposure  is  the  fault.  This  matter  will 
be  more  fully  dealt  with  in  the  chapter  on  “de- 
veloping” For  the  present  I will  confine  myself 
to  again  hinting  that  it  is  better  to  over  than  to 
under  expose,  for  this  defect  can  often  be  com- 
pensated for  in  development,  while  for, the  other 
there  is  no  cure,  and  we  will  imagine  that  the  ex- 
posure of  this  particular  subject  has  been  mas- 
tered so  that  we  can  pass  on  to  the  consideration 
of  others. 

In  an  open  view,  where  there  are  no  heavy 
shadows  in  the  foreground,  the  necessary  ex- 
posure will  be  much  shorter,  and  where  a land- 
scape is  taken  from  the  top  of  a hill  or  high 
building,  the  time  should  be  very  short,  indeed, 
for  all  portions  of  the  view  are  distant.  In  a 
view  of  this  description,  where  there  is  already 
a great  lack  of  contrast,  full  advantage  should  be 
taken  of  the  fact  that  under-exposure,  accom- 
panied by  judicious  “forcing”  in  development, 
tends  to  increase  of  contrast.  Photographs  taken 
in  woods  and  wherever  there  are  dense  masses 
of  foliage,  will  require  a much  longer  exposure 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


75 


than  at  first  sight  would  seem  necessary,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  green  light  which  finds  its 
way  through  the  interstices  of  the  trees  is  to  a 
great  extent  robbed  of  its  actinic  power,  and  is 
no  longer  able  to  affect  the  sensitive  plate  to  the 
same  degree. 

Architectural  Subjects. — Architectural  sub- 
jects are  deservedly  great  favorites  with  many 
photographers,  for  it  is  in  the  making  of  pictures 
that  come  under  this  heading  that  photography 
finds  one  of  its  most  'pleasing  features.  Its  prac- 
tice is  not  attended  with  any  particular  difficul- 
ties, but  it  is  one  of  those  branches  of  the  art 
which  will  reward,  by  conferring  the  ability  to 
produce  fresh  beauties,  the  painstaking  labor  of 
the  most  highly  accomplished  photographer. 
Although  the  merest  tyro  may  begin  on  archi- 
tectural work  at  once  if  he  please,  yet  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  attain  the  highest  plane  of  excel- 
lence, for  very  rarely  is  a photograph  of  a given 
building  produced  so  perfect  that,  under  certain 
conditions,  a better  one  could  not  be  made. 


Fig.  38.  Fig.  39. 


These  two  views  (Figs.  38-39)  of  the  same 
building  illustrate  the  importance  of  shadows. 
They  were  made  from  the  same  point  of  view. 
The  one  at  the  right  was  photographed  at  10  a. 


76  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

m.,  the  camera  pointing  northeast.  Observe  the 
shadows,  giving  the  proper  projection  to  the 
architecture. 

The  picture  at  the  left  was  taken  at  1 p.  m., 
with  the  sun  almost  directly  behind  the  camera. 
It  is  thus  almost  devoid  of  shadow,  resulting  in  a 
flat  and  imperfect  photograph. 

All  architecture  is  full  of  straight  lines ; there- 
fore it  is  necessary  to  use,  when  portraying  it, 
more  than  in  anything  else,  apparatus  which  will 
not  give  distortion.  In  the  first  place,  a Recti- 
linear lens  is  a necessity  for  reasons  already 
stated  (see  Chapter  on  “Lenses”),  and  then 
again  the  rising  front  and  the  swing  back  with 
which  the  camera  is  fitted,  but  which,  up  to  the 
present,  has  been  somewhat  of  a mystery,  be- 
comes an  important  adjunct. 

USE  OF  THE  SWING  BACK. 

Suppose  it  is  desired  to  take  a photograph  of 
the  exterior  of  a high  building.  In  order  to  in- 
clude the  upper  portion  in  the  picture  it  will  be 
necessary  to  tilt  the  camera  upwards.  Now  the 
upper  parts  will  be  farther  away  from  the  lens 
than  the  lower  portions,  consequently  they  will 
be  reproduced  smaller  in  proportion,  and  all 
parallel  lines  running  upwards  will  follow  the 
venal  law  of  perspective  and  appear  to  converge. 
But  artists  do  not  recognize  that  parallel  lines 
running  upwards  in  a high  building  must  appear 
in  the  eye  of  an  observer  stationed  below  to  con- 
verge towards  the  top,  and  buildings  are  so  often 
portrayed  with  the  vertical  lines  drawn  strictly 
parallel  that  a photograph  in  which  they  are 
shown  convergent  gives  to  the  building  a top- 
pling-down  appearance  which  is  not  pleasing  to 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


77 


the  artistic  eye.  It  is  the  function  of  the  swing 
back  to  overcome  this  defect.  The  back  of  the 
camera  should  always  be  kept  strictly  vertical 
when  photographing  architectural  subjects,  and 
the  upright  lines  in  the  original  will  be  pro- 
duced upright  in  the  resulting  picture.  Another 
method  by  which  the  Same  result  may  be 
brought  about  to  a modified  extent  is  by  the  em- 
ployment of  the  rising  and  falling  post.  This 
method  has  the  disadvantage,  however,  that  in 
extreme  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  raise  the 
lens  to  such  an  extent  that  the  light  passing 
through  it  cannot  reach  the  lower  portion  of  the 
plate,  which  is  therefore  left  blank.  As  regards 
the  actual  length  of  exposure  where  architectural 
subjects  are  concerned,  this  is  governed  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  landscape,  but 
as  a general  rule  the  times  should  be  shorter.  A 
new  white  building  will  only  require  about  half 
the  time  that  would  be  necessary  for  a landscape 
view  under  similar  conditions  as  to  lighting,  and 
so  on,  while  one  that  is  built  of  red  brick  or 
that  has  become  blackened  with  age  wifi  neces- 
sitate a correspondingly  longer  exposure. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

PORTRAIT  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Portraiture  at  Home. — There  is  no  more  inter- 
esting branch  of  picture  making  than  portraiture, 

and  the  required  acces- 
sories can  be  found  in 
every  home.  To  attain 
good  results  it  may 
take  a little  patience 
and  study,  but  for  all 
this  the  amateur  will  be 
well  repaid  in  the  satis- 
faction brought  by  his 
first  successes.  The 
first  element  to  be 
taken  into  considera- 
tion is  the  light.  A 
north  light  is  prefera- 
ble, and  it  should,  if 
possible,  be  unobstruct- 
ed by  trees  or  build- 
ings; but  where  this 
cannot  be  avoided  the 
disadvantage  should  be 
compensated  for  by 
giving  additional  time 
to  exposure.  The  light 
should  also  be  a top 
light — that  is,  it  should 
be  above  the  head  of  the  sitter,  a result  easily  ac- 
complished by  opening  blinds  and  shades  to  their 
full  limit  and  then  pinning  a cloth  over  the  lower 
half  of  the  window. 


A PROFILE  PORTRAIT. 

Photographed  in  an  ordinary  sit- 
ting room  with  arrangement  of 
light,  camera  and  subject  ac- 
cording to  illustration  Fig.  40. 
Negative  by  T.  S.  Baldwin. 


78 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


7 9 


Cross  Light  to  Be  Avoided. — All  light  should 
come  from  one  source,  otherwise  the  shadows 
will  be  so  cut  up  as  to  lend  a disagreeable  and 
unnatural  appearance  to  the  face. 

A room  with  a large  window  should  be  chosen 
as  the  place  for  operations,  and  a day  when  the 
sun  is  not  shining  through  the  window,  but  when 
its  light  is  reflected  in  by  a white  cloud  or  a light- 
painted  house  opposite.  Place  the  sitter  about 
three  or  four  feet  from  the  window  and  slightly 
behind  it,  so  that  the  majority  of  the  light  will 
fall  upon  his  face  from  the  front  and  from  above. 
This  will  probably  leave  the  other  side  of  the 
face  in  deep  shadow — a grave  fault,  which  must 
be  removed  by  the  aid  of  a white  screen,  such  as 
can  be  improvised  by  hanging  a white  sheet  over 
a clothes-horse.  This  reflector  should  be 
placed  beside  the  sitter,  but  slightly  in  front 
on  the  opposite  side  to  the  window,  and 
its  position  may  be  varied  and  the  quantity  and 
direction  of  the  light  from  the  window  modified 
by  drawing  the  curtains  from  place  to  place,  un- 
til that  kind  of  illumination  is  obtained  which  is 
calculated  to  give  the  best  effect  to  the  sitter’s 
particular  style  of  features.  In  portraiture,  as 
in  most  indoor  photography,  there  is  a tendency 
to  very  high  contrasts  in  the  resultant  print.  A 
face  which  is  much  more  brightly  lighted  on  one 
side  than  on  the  other,  though  not  sufficiently  so 
as  to  seem  objectionable,  will  appear  in  the  pho- 
tograph perfectly  white  and  absolutely  black — 
like  so  much  chalk  and  soot.  Everything  should 
be  done  to  lessen  the  contrasts  by  carefully  ar- 
ranging the  light  before  exposure,  and  no  haste 
should  be  made  to  put  the  cap  on  the  lens  or  to 
close  the  shutter,  for  a full  exposure  will  ma- 
terially help  to  get  the  desired  effect.  Of  course, 


8o 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


it  should  not  be  overdone.  There  should  be  con- 
siderably more  light  on  one  side  of  the  face  than 
on  the  other,  or  it  will  appear  perfectly  flat  and 
chalky,  with  many  of  the  features  invisible  alto- 
gether. It  is  only  necessary  to  remember  that 
in  indoor  portraiture  the  contrasts  are  liable  to 
exaggeration,  and  precautions  should  be  taken 
against  an  undue  hardness  in  the  resulting  print. 

How  the  sitter  is  to  be  placed  depends  largely 
upon  the  features.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have 
the  eyes  in  an  easy  and  natural  position  and 
looking  very  nearly  straight  ahead.  If  turned 
decidedly  to  either  side  they  will  give  a disagree- 
able expression,  a sort  of  caricature  of  slyness. 

The  background  should  be  appropriate  and 
simple  and  should  form  a contrast  with  the  sitter. 
A portiere  hung  against  the  wall  makes  a very 
satisfactory  dark  background,  and  where  a light 
one  is  desirable  a sheet  will  answer  the  purpose ; 
but  in  case  it  is  used  the  assistance  of  a third 
party  should  be  called  in  to  keep  the  sheet  in  mo- 
tion during  exposure,  so  that  it  will  be  out  of 
focus.  A good  light  background  may  frequently 
be  obtained  by  posing  the  subject  in  front  of  a 
lace  window  curtain,  the  shades,  of  course,  being 
drawn  down  in  such  a case.  As  a rule,  however, 
the  dark  backgrounds  are  more  desirable,  and 
prints  from  negatives  made  with  them  are  more 
readily  handled  by  the  amateur  than  those  with 
light  backgrounds,  which  require  vignetting. 

After  the  first  experiments  the  student  will 
learn  to  study  his  sitter’s  face  critically  and  will 
beconje  able  to  judge  by  a rapid  scanning  of  the 
features  whether  a profile,  a half  or  a full  front 
will  give  the  most  artistic  results. 

The  largest  stop  that  will  cut  the  picture 
sharply  should  be  employed,  thus  making  a short 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


8l 


exposure*  possible,  for  the  shorter  the  exposure 
the  more  natural  will  be  the  expression  on  the 
face  of  the  sitter.  No  matter  if  the  background 
is  out  of  focus;  that  is  merely  a necessary  evil 
in  the  picture  and  will  divert  less  attention  from 
the  subject  if  a trifle  subdued  by  indistinctness. 

In  the  case  of  a portrait  taken  in  the  interior 
of  an  ordinary  room,  the  larger  lens  aperture  is 
a positive  necessity,  for  the  exposure  necessary 
with  a smaller  one  would  be  so  inordinately  long 
as  to  tire  out  the  most  patient  sitter. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  an  idea  of  what  would 
be  the  correct  exposure  for  a portrait  in 
an  ordinary  room ; there  are  so  many  vary- 
ing conditions  to  be  considered  that  any  at- 
tempt to  take  them  into  account  in  imagination 
would  only  be  confusing.  There  is  nothing  for 
it  but  for  the  tyro  to  make  a guess  at  its  length 
and  then  to  correct  it  according  to  results.  Then, 
having  ascertained  what  length  of  time  will  yield 
satisfactory  results  under  a certain  set  of  -con- 
ditions, its  estimation  for  varying  cases  is  as 
much  a matter  of  calculation  as  anything  else. 
However,  an  approximate  idea  of  the  length  of 
exposure  necessary  may  be  gathered  from  the 
table,  given  under  the  chapter,  “Photograph- 
ing Interiors.”  Remember  that  when  you  double 
the  diameter  of  the  aperture  of  the  lens  you  in- 
crease its  size  four-fold,  so  that  it  will  pass  four 
times  as  much  light  and  the  photograph  taken 
with  it  will  only  require  one-quarter  the  time  of 
exposure.  The  length  of  the  exposure  is  in- 
versely as  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  lens 
aperture. 

Illustrations.  — The  following  illustrations 
(Fig.  40)  will  greatly  assist  the  amateur  to  a 


82 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


clear  understanding  of  the  arrangement  of  the 
room  and  the  effect  of  light  and  shade  on  the 
sitter. 

This  illustration  shows  a room  16x20  feet, 
containing  two  windows,  both  fronting  south. 
The  window  at  the  right  is  completely  covered 
by  an  opaque  curtain,  and  the  other  window  has 


Fig.  40. 


its  lower  half  covered  by  a black  cloth,  leaving 
the  upper  half  open,  thus  admitting  the  light  to 
make  the  portrait.  Background  and  chair  were 
placed  as  shown  in  illustration.  The  child’s  por- 
trait (Fig.  41)  was  produced  as  shown  in  Fig. 
40.  The  black  line  on  the  floor  shows  the  posi- 
tion of  the  reflector,  which  was  three  and  one- 
half  feet  from  the  child.  The  chair  in  which  she 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


83 


was  sitting  was  two  and  one-half  feet  from  the 
window,  and  the  background  was  three  feet  be- 
hind the  child. 

The  portrait  shown  in  Fig.  42  was  taken  in  a 
room  with  three  windows.  Two  of  these  were 
closed,  admitting  no  light.  The  window  at  the 
right  of  the  child,  and  on  the  casing  of  which 
the  child  rests  its  hand,  was  closed  by  a dark 


Fig.  41. 


curtain  up  to  a point  even  with  the  child’s  head. 
The  light  producing  the  portrait  comes  only 
from  the  upper  part  of  this  window.  The  re 
Hector  used  to  soften  the  shadow  side  of  the  face 
was  a sheet  of  white  cloth  about  five  feet  square 
tacked  to  the  tops  of  two  high-backed  chairs 
about  three  and  one-half  feet  from  the  child.  It 
stood  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  to  a line 


84  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

drawn  between  the  child  and  the  camera.  The 
walls  of  the  room  served  as  a background. 

The  portrait  shown  in  Fig.  43  is  that  of  a 
young  lady  taken  in  the  same  position  as  por- 
trait of  child  shown  in  Fig.  41,  with  no  change 
of  either  background,  reflector,  light  or  camera. 


Fig.  42. 

The  portrait  shown  in  Fig.  44  was  made  under 
the  same  conditions,  except  that  the  background 
was  moved  nearer  to  the  wall,  the  camera  was 
moved  farther  over  to  the  middle  of  the  room, 
and  the  reflector  was  placed  nearer  to  the  sitter. 
A white  background  should  not  be  used,  for  the 
reason  that  it  reflects  so  much  white  light. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


85 


The  silhouette  (Fig.  45)  was  made  by  placing 
the  sitter  at  an  ordinary  window,  with  the  cam- 
era lower  than  the  head.  A snapshot  exposure 
was  made,  the  window  or  sky  serving  as  back- 
ground. 

What  is  known  as  a Rembrandt  lighting  is 
often  very  effective  and  is  obtained  by  photo- 
graphing from  the  shaded  instead  of  from  the 
lighted  side  of  the  face.  The  relative  proportion 
of  the  shaded  and  lighted  sides  of  the  face  can 


Fig.  43.  Fig.  44. 


be  changed  by  simply  turning  the  sitter’s  head 
toward  or  away  from  the  light.  A slight  change 
in  position  makes  a wonderful  change  in  the  light- 
ing, and  the  sitter’s  face  should  be  carefully 
studied  to  obtain  the  best  effects. 

In  “A  Rembrandt  Portrait”  (See  Fig.  46)  we 
give  a marked  case  of  this  lighting.  In  “The 
Chorister”  (See  Fig.  47)  the  artist  has  used  the 
Rembrandt  lighting  but  a trifle.  Between  these 
two  extremes  many  effects  can  be  obtained  that 
are  also  desirable. 


86 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Outdoor  Portraiture. — Portraits  can  be  taken 
very  well  in  the  open  air,  and,  indeed,  provided 
certain  precautions  be  observed,  this  method  is- 


Fig.  45.  Fig.  46. 


more  likely  to  give  quite  as  satisfactory  results  in 
the  hands  of  an  amateur  who  does  not  possess 
a regular  studio  as  will  indoor  work.  In  open 
air  portraiture,  to  cut  off  the  light  which  comes 
in  the  directions  in  which  it  is  not  required  in 
order  to  give  value  to  that  which  falls  in  the 
right  direction,  the  sitter  should  be  placed  in  an 
angle  of  a wall  so  that  the  building  shields  him 
from  the  light  on  one  side,  and  if  there  be  any 
means  of  cutting  off  some  of  the  top  light,  so 
much  the  better.  As  an  idea  of  the  exposure 
required  in  such  a case,  between  five  and  six 
seconds  may  be  quoted,  where  the  F-32  lens 
aperture  is  retained  with  the  slow  plates  on  a 
fine  day  in  summer.  This  should  be  only  taken 
as  a basis  from  which  the  exposure  may  be  cal- 
culated ; for  in  a general  way  it  will  be  better 
to  employ  a larger  lens  aperture  and  faster  plate 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


87 


and  give  a proportionately  shorter  exposure.  A 
stop  of  four  times  the  diameter,  which  would  be 
called  F-8,  would  necessitate  an  exposure,  as  al- 
ready explained,  only  one-sixteenth  as  long,  or 


Fig.  47. 


under  half  a second ; and  in  this  time  the  sitter 
will  have  little  chance  of  moving,  while  the  pho- 
tographer has  the  opportunity  of  seizing  that 
moment  for  exposure  when  the  subject  appears 


88 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


at  his  best,  without  being  obliged  to  run  the  risk 
of  spoiling  everything  by  giving  warning  that 
he  is  ready  to  take  the  picture. 

Portraits  should  not  be  made  in  the  sunlight. 
However,  where  figures  are  merely  accessories 
to  a landscape,  or  a part  of  some  interesting 
scene,  there  is  no  harm  in  snapping  them  in  a 
bright  light,  but  where  the  face  is  the  central 
point  of  interest  in  the  picture  it  must  be  in  the 
shade.  Strong  sunlight  destroys  the  expression 
of  the  eyes,  while  the  heavy  shadows  cast  by 
the  nose  and  other  features,  or  by  the  hat,  if  one 
be  worn,  will  entirely  distort  the  face,  and  while 
a likeness  may  remain,  it  will  certainly  be  an 
unkind  one.  Outdoor  portraits  should,  there- 
fore, be  taken  in  the  shade  of  a veranda  or  tree 
and  made  by  time  exposure.  The  time  to  be 
given  must  be  learned  by  experience,  depending 
largely  as  it  does  on  the  amount  of  reflected 
light,  the  hour  of  the  day  and  the  time  of  year. 
After  a few  trials  the  amateur  will  be  able  to 
properly  judge  the  light  and  time  the  exposure, 
but  he  should  understand  that  it  is  easier  to 
save  an  overexposed  than  an  underexposed  nega- 
tive, and  he  should  therefore  be  sure  to  give  time 
enough. 

Of  one  thing,  however,  he  should  be  careful. 
Many  a good  portrait  has  been  ruined  by  an  in- 
appropriate background,  and  there  is  no  more 
unsightly  or  more  commonly  used  background 
than  the  clapboarded  side  of  a house.  The  regu- 
lar lines  crossing  the  picture  are  most  trying  to 
the  eyes  and  are  most  inartistic.  Backgrounds 
as  a rule  should  form  a contrast  with  the  sitter 
and  should  not  be  a prominent  feature  of  the 
picture.  A trellis  of  vines,  the  dense  shade  of  a 
grove  back  of  the  subject,  or  a grassy  slope  all 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  89 

make  appropriate  backgrounds  when  properly 
handled. 

Portraiture  in  the  Studio. — The  requisite 


Fig.  49. 

necessary  to  produce  good  portraits  is  a proper- 
ly adjusted  light.  The  half  tone  cuts  under  the 
sub-caption  “Lighting”  which  follows  will 
give  an  approximate  idea  of  portrait  light- 


90 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


ing,  the  light  for  which  should  come  from 
one  source  only,  and  that  above  the  head, 
to  the  right  or  left,  as  the  case  may  be.  A suit- 
able background  should  be  used,  which  consists 
of  some  tinted  or  painted  material  of  a semi- 
gray or  neutral  color,  usually  placed  a couple 
of  feet  back  of  the  subject,  and  a reflector  or 
grading  screen  consisting  of  white  muslin 
stretched  smoothly  on  a frame  at  least  four  to 
six  feet  square,  placed  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees 


Fig.  50.  Fig.  51. 


to  the  imaginary  line  between  the  lens  and  the 
subject,  and  the  proper  distance  from  the  model. 

Lighting. — Long  before  photography  was 
known  the  old  masters  of  painting  discovered 
the  true  system  of  so  lighting  the  human  face 
as  to  display  its  most  striking  characteristics. 
The  painter,  however,  could  modify  the  lights 
and  shades  with  brush  and  colors,  while  the  pho- 
tographer must  light  his  subjects  in  the  exact 
proportions  he  desires  to  reproduce. 

The  portrait  shown  in  Fig.  50  illustrates  what 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


91 


is  called  artists’  lighting.  It  was  taken  in  an 
ordinary  studio,  with  curtains  arranged  as  shown 
in  Fig.  49.  The  relative  positions  of  sitter,  back- 
ground, camera  and  reflector  are  shown  in  Dia- 
gram No.  1,  Fig.  53. 

Idle  portrait  shown  in  Fig.  51  was  taken  with 
the  sitter  and  the  light  in  the 
same  relative  positions  as  for  the 
portrait  shown  in  Fig.  50,  but 
the  camera,  the  reflector  and  the 
background  were  changed  to  the 
positions  shown  in  Diagram  No. 
2,  Fig.  53. 

The  portrait  shown  in  Fig.  52, 
showing  the  dark  line  down  the 
entire  profile,  was  photograped 
in  the  same  room  as  Figs.  50  and 
51,  but  was  changed  to  the  other  side  of  the  light, 
as  shown  in  Diagram  No.  3,  Fig.  53,  no  reflector 
being  used. 

Many  other  pleasing  effects  can  be  obtained  by  ar- 
ranging camera,  background  and  subject  accord- 
ing to  Diagrams  4 and  5 of  Fig.  53. 


92 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY, 


DIAGRAM  Mo.< 


Fig.  53, 


DIAGRAM  Ala/  DIAGRAM  Mo.  2 DIAGRAM  Mo.3 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY 


93 


Studio  Portrait  Equipment. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


PHOTOGRAPHING  INTERIORS. 

Lighting. — In  photographing  interiors  it  is 
necessary  to  give  greatly  increased  exposures, 

varied,  of  course,  accord- 
ing to  the  illumination, 
the  color  of  the  walls,  fur- 
niture, etc.  Even  in  well 
lighted  rooms  exposures 
should  seldom  be  less 
than  ten  to  twenty  sec- 
onds, and  others  from 
twenty-five  seconds  to 
hours,  as  in  the  case  of 
some  churches  with  col- 
ored glass  windows, 
where  light  is  subdued  by 
the  glass.  The  best  re- 
sults in  this  class  of  pho- 
tography are  obtained 
by  plates  specially  prepared,  called  “non-hala- 
tion,” or  “double-coated,”  which  admit  of  a wide 
latitude  of  exposure.  When  the  exposure  has 
been  correct  the  most  perfect  and  beautiful  re- 
sults can  be  obtained  by  proper  development. 

Photographing  interiors  and  portraiture  in  or- 
dinary rooms  are  closely  allied,  for  in  many  re- 
spects there  are  marked  points  of  similarity.  For 
instance,  there  is  a decided  tendency  to  the  ex- 
aggeration of  the  contrasts,  which  has  to  be  over- 
come in  the  same  manner  in  one  case  as  in  the 
other,  by  equalizing  the  illumination  as  much  as 
possible,  reducing  the  depth  of  the  shadows  and 

94 


CORRIDOR  OF  CONGRES- 
SIONAL LIBRARY, 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


95 


toning  clown  the  brilliancy  of  the  high  lights,  and 
by  giving  exposures  of  amply  sufficient  length. 
As  a general  rule  it  may  be  taken  that  in  the 
photography  of  interiors  it  is  better  to  use  a 
small  stop  in  the  lens  and  to  give  a correspond- 
ingly long  exposure.  This  will  tend  to  reduce  the 
inordinate  contrasts,  and  there  is  seldom  any 
reason  why- the  time  should  be  unduly  hurried, 
as  is  often  required  in  the  case  of  portraiture. 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered  in  regard  to 
interior  photography,  as  in  most  other  branches 
of  the  art,  is  the  point  of  view  from  which  the 
picture  shall  be  taken.  In  the  case  of  a small- 
room  it  is  impossible  to  take  in  anything  but 
just  one  corner  of  it — unless  a wide-angle  lens  is 
employed — and  the  difficulty  which  immediately 
presents  itself  is  to  make  that  one  corner  appear 
in  the  photograph  as  representative  of  the  whole 
as  possible.  A wide-angle  lens  is  an  instrument 
which  has  been  designed  to  overcome  this  dif- 
ficulty in  connection  with  the  small  angle  of  view 
which  the  ordinary  lens  is  able  to  embrace.  It  is 
a lens  of  very  short  focus  in  relation  to  the  size 
of  the  plate  which  it  will  cover,  and  consequently 
it  gives  much  smaller  images  and  can  throw  a 
large  quantity  of  them  onto  a plate  of  given  size. 
However,  the  result  is  also  very  apt  to  be  that 
the  lines  of  perspective  are  very  much  distorted 
in  a photograph  taken  in  this  manner,  and  a 
small  room  is  made  to  appear  like  a long  gallery 
filled  with  horribly  disproportionate  furniture. 
It  is  perhaps  better  to  be  contented  with  an  in- 
complete but  true  representation  of  an  interior 
than  to  produce  a view  which  shows  more  but 
shows  it  incorrectly.  In  a general  way  it  is  best 
to  take  up  a position  fqr  the  camera  in  one  cor- 
ner of  the  room,  for  in  a square  room  this  gives 


96 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


a greater  distance,  and  the  opposite  corner  has 
better  pictorial  possibilities  than  a flat  wall 
would  have.  The  camera  should  be  placed  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  the  height  of  the  eye,  so 
that  the  resulting  photograph  will  represent  the 
view  as  it  would  be  seen  by  a person  standing 
at  the  point  whence  the  photograph  was  taken. 

Again,  as  regards  exposure,  it  is  impossible  to 
give  any  definite  instructions,  for  it  may  vary  to 
any  extent  from  half  a minute  to  half  an  hour, 
and  under  difficult  conditions  may  easily  reach 
half  a day  or  even  more.  The  only  thing  in  the 
nature  of  a suggestion  which  I can  give  is  that 
the  beginner  try  an  exposure  about  ten  times  as 
long  as  that  which  he  would  guess  to  be  correct, 
and  he  probably  will  not  be  far  out.  Unless  non- 
halation plates  are  used  he  should  be  very  care- 
ful that  no  windows  form  any  portion  of  the 
picture,  unless  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  leave 
them  out  of  it,  for  these,  being  far  more  brilliant- 
ly lighted  than  the  other  portions,  will  be  suffi- 
ciently exposed  when  the  rest  of  the  picture  re- 
quires a hundred  times  as  long.  The  result  of 
including  them  would  be  that  the  extra  exposure, 
as  it  were,  would,  by  the  action  known  as  hala- 
tion, spread  to  the  surrounding  portions  of  the 
picture  and  fog  them  in  that  distressing  manner 
sometimes  seen  in  photographs  of  churches  and 
other  similar  subjects.  If  the  light  from  the 
window  which  must  appear  in  the  picture  can 
be  blocked  out  by  such  means  as  drawing  a 
heavy  blind  or  hanging  a thick  sheet  outside — 
the  interior  course  receiving  its  illumination 
from  some  other  source — there  is  no  reason  why 
the  result  should  not  be  satisfactory,  and  other- 
wise a great  deal  may  be  done  by  the  use  of  some 
form  of  non-halation  or  “backed”  plates. 
Care  should  also  be  taken  that  no  polished  metal 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


97 


objects  are  allowed  to  reflect  light  directly  into 
the  camera,  for  if  they  do,  except  where  the  spe- 
cially prepared  plates  are  used,  such  things  will 
appear  surrounded  with  a halo  which  will  not 
add  to  their  beauty. 

Approximate  Time  Needed  for  Interior  Ex- 
posures.— The  following  table  is  an  excellent 
guide  for  making  interior  exposures,  and  is  based 
upon  the  time  needed  for  exposures  with  the 
stop  ordinarily  used  for  snapshots  in  single  lens 
cameras,  and  with  the  No.  8 stop  in  all  rapid  rec- 
tilinear lenses.  When  a smaller  stop  is  used  the 
time  must  be  increased  proportionately : 

White  walls  and  more  than  one  window — 
Bright  sun  outside,  2 seconds ; hazy  sun,  5 sec- 
onds ; cloudy  bright,  10  seconds ; cloudy  dull,  20 
seconds. 

White  walls  and  only  one  window — Bright 
sun  outside,  3 seconds ; hazy  sun,  8 seconds ; 
cloudy  bright,  15  seconds;  cloudy  dull,  30  sec- 
onds. 

Medium  colored  walls  and  hangings  and  more 
than  one  window — Bright  sun  outside,  4 sec- 
onds ; hazy  sun,  10  seconds ; cloudy  bright,  20 
seconds ; cloudy  dull,  40  seconds. 

Medium  colored  walls  and  hangings  and 
only  one  window — Bright  sun  outside,  6 sec- 
onds; hazy  sun,  15  seconds;  cloudy  bright,  30 
seconds;  cloudy  dull,  60  seconds. 

Dark  colored  walls  and  hangings  and  more 
than  one  window — Bright  sun  outside,  10  sec- 
onds;, hazy  sun,  20  seconds;  cloudy  bright,  40 
seconds;  cloudy  dull,  1 minute  20  seconds. 

Dark  colored  walls  and  hangings  and  only  one 
window — Bright  sun  outside,  20  seconds ; hazy 
sun,  40  seconds ; cloudy  bright,  80  seconds ; 
cloudy  dull,  2 minutes  40  seconds. 


98 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


The  foregoing  is  calculated  for  rooms  whose 
windows  get  the  direct  light  from  the  sky  from 
three  hours  after  sunrise  until  three  hours  before 
sunset.  If  earlier  or  later  the  time  required  will 
be  longer. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

FLASHLIGHT  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Pictures  by  Flashlight. — The  rays  of  old  Sol, 
once  an  all-important  factor  in  picture  making, 
are  no  longer  an  essential  for  indoor  work.  For 
capturing  the  beauties  of  the  landscape  we  still 
depend  upon  him,  but  for  interior  work,  espe- 
cially at  night,  man’s  ingenuity  has  supplied  a 
substitute  for  the  sun’s  rays  equally  effective  and 
more  manageable.  For  many  purposes,  in  fact, 
the  flashlight  is  more  desirable  than  sunlight.  It 
can  always  be  depended  upon  to  shine  when 
wanted  and  with  just  the  proper  brilliancy;  it 
can  always  be  depended  upon  to  shine  when 
ows  fall  in  the  desired  direction,  and,  photo- 
graphically speaking,  it  turns  night  into  day. 
To  the  amateur  “bottled  sunlight”  is  an  especial 
convenience,  for  his  photographic  work  is  fre- 
quently confined  to  the  night  time,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  many  times  that  he  brings  the  flash- 
light into  play  in  photographing  his  friends  at 
evening  gatherings.  Indeed,  it  is  as  a means  of 
photographing  one’s  friends  on  such  occasions 
that  the  flashlight  is  most  commonly  used,  but 
the  experienced  amateur  knows  of  many  other 
ways  in  which  to  avail  himself  of  its  actinic 
powers. 

Frequently  it  is  desired  to  take  a photograph 
of  an  interior  which,  by  reason  of  a lack  of  illu- 
mination, or  because  some  window  which  can- 
not be  covered  comes  within  range  of  the  cam- 
era, is  impracticable  by  daylight.  In  such  cases 
a charge  of  flash  powder  solves  the  problem. 

99 


IOO 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Again,  it  is  desired  to  photograph  a very  large 
room  which  is  lighted  from  only  one  side  by 
daylight.  To  get  a full  time  exposure  in  the 
darkest  corner  of  the  room  would  cause  a de- 


Fig.  54. 

cided  overexposure  near  the  windows.  A flash 
of  powder,  concealed  from  direct  line  with  the 
lens  by  some  article  of  furniture  or  by  a screen, 
illuminates  the  dark  corner  and  gives  a prop- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


TOI 


erly  lighted  exposure  of  the  entire  room.  These 
are  the  ordinary  uses  of  the  flashlight,  and  by 
following  the  simple  rules  laid  down  the  ama- 
teur can  make  pictures  with  as  great  an  assur- 
ance of  success  as  when  making  snapshots  out 
of  doors.  For  the  production  of  unusual  effects, 
however,  one  must  study  all  the  conditions, 
weighing  carefully  cause  and  effect,  and  must 
not  yield  to  disappointment  if  success  be  not  at- 
tained at  first.  There  are  many  ways  in  which 
the  flash  may  be  made  to  co-operate  with  other 
artificial  light,  or  with  daylight,  to  produce  a 
unique  or  artistic  effect,  and  to  the  serious 
worker  it  offers  another  means  to  the  end  most 
desired  by  all  photographic  workers — pictorial 
effect. 

Flash  powders  are  put  up  in  three  ways:  In 

bottled  form  for  use  in  the  flash  lamp,  in  cart- 
ridges having  fuses  and  requiring  no  extras,  and 
in  flash  sheets,  which  are  used  by  simply  pin- 
ning them  up  against  a cardboard  on  the  wall 
and  igniting  the  lower  corner. 

The  same  general  rules  will  apply  whether  the 
lamp,  the  cartridge  or  the  flash  sheet  be  used. 

Preparation  of  the  Flashlight. — The  light 
should  always  be  placed  two  feet  behind  and  two 
to  three  feet  to  one  side  of  the  camera.  If  placed 
in  front  of  or  on  a line  with  the  front  of  camera, 
the  flash  would  strike  the  lens  and  blur  the  pic- 
ture. It  should  be  placed  at  one  side  as  well  as 
behind,  so  as  to  throw  a shadow  and  give  a little 
relief  in  lighting.  The  flash  should  be  at  the 
same  height  or  a little  higher  than  the  camera. 
A piece  of  cardboard  a foot  square  placed  under 
the  powder  will  prevent  any  sparks  from  the 
flash  doing  damage.  A sheet  of  white  cardboard 


102 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


set  up  behind  the  flash  will  act  as  a reflector  and 
increase  the  strength  of  the  picture. 

Taking  the  Picture. — Having  the  camera  and 
the  powder  both  in  position,  the  camera  should 
be  set  shutter  open,  as  for  a time  exposure,  but 
the  stop  ordinarily  employed  for  snapshots 
should  be  employed.  When  the  powder  is  ig- 
nited there  will  be  a bright  flash,  which  will  in- 
stantly impress  the  picture  on  the  sensitive  film. 
Then  close  the  shutter. 

The  Powder. — The  amount  of  powder  re- 
quired to  light  a room  varies  with  the  distance 
of  the  object  farthest  away  from  the  camera  and 
the  color  of  the  walls  and  hangings. 

TABLE. 

For  io  feet  distance  and  light  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  i cartridge  No.  2,  i even  teaspoonful ; i 
flash  sheet. 

For  io  feet  distance  and  dark  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  2 cartridges  No.  2,  2 even  teaspoonfuls; 
2 flash  sheets. 

For  15  feet  distance  and  light  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  2 cartridges  No.  2,  2 even  teaspoonfuls; 

2 flash  sheets. 

For  15  feet  distance  and  dark  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  3 cartridges  No.  2,  3 even  teaspoonfuls; 

3 flash  sheets. 

For  25  feet  distance  and  light  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  3 cartridges  No.  2,  3 even  teaspoonfuls; 

3 flash  sheets. 

For  25  feet  distance  and  dark  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  4 cartridges  No.  2,  4 even  teaspoonfuls; 

4 flash  sheets. 

Note. — The  No.  1 cartridges  hold  50  per  cent 
more  powder  and  the  No.  3 about  half  as  much 
as  the  No.  2,  and  should  be  used  accordingly. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


103 


Portraits. — Place  the  sitter  in  a chair  partly 
facing  the  camera  (which  should  be  at  the  height 
of  an  ordinary  table),  and  turn  the  face  slightly 
towards  the  camera.  The  proper  distance  from 
the  camera  to  the  subject  can  be  ascertained  by 
looking  at  the  image  in  the  finder. 

The  powder  should  be  on  the  side  of  the  cam- 
era away  from  the  face — that  is,  the  sitter  should 
not  face  the  flash. 

Groups. — Arrange  the  chairs  in  the  form  of  a 
semi-circle,  facing  the  camera,  so  that  each  chair 
will  be  exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  cam- 
era. Half  the  persons  composing  the  group 
should  be  seated  and  the  rest  should  stand  be- 
hind the  chairs.  In  case  any  of  the  subjects  are 
seated  on  the  floor  the  limbs  should  be  drawn 
up  close  to  the  body,  not  extended  towards  the 
camera. 

The  Background. — In  making  single  portraits 
or  groups  care  should  be  taken  to  have  a suit- 
able background  against  which  the  figures  will 
show  in  relief ; a light  background  is  better  than 
a dark  one,  and  often  a single  figure  or  two  will 
show  up  well  against  a lace  curtain.  For  larger 
groups  a medium  light  will  be  suitable. 

The  finder  on  the  camera  will  help  the  oper- 
ator to  compose  the  group  so  as  to  get  the  best 
effect.  In  order  to  make  the  image  visible  in  the 
finder  the  room  should  be  well  lighted  with  ordi- 
nary lamplight,  which  may  be  left  on  while  the 
picture  is  being  made,  provided  none  of  the 
lights  are  so  placed  that  they  show  in  the  finder, 
or  if  a focusing  camera  is  used  employ  the 
ground  glass  screen  in  the  usual  manner. 

When  Using  Flash  Cartridges. — Remove  the 
cover  from  the  cartridge  and  place  it  upon  a 
cardboard.  All  being  in  readiness,  as  before  de- 


104  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

scribed,  open  the  camera  shutter,  ignite  the  fuse 
while  at  arm’s  length,  protecting  the  eyes  in  the 
meantime  from  the  brilliant  flash.  Close  the 
camera  shutter. 

If  two  cartridges  are  to  be  used  the  contents 
of  one  of  them  can  be  poured  into  the  other, 
care  being  taken,  however,  that  if  any  of  the 
powder  spills  over  it  does  not  lie  in  such 
a position  as  to  practically  shorten  the  fuse. 

Fuses  used  on  these  cartridges  are  very  quick. 

When  Using  Flash  Sheets. — Pin  a flash  sheet 
by  one  corner  to  a piece  of  cardboard  which  has 
previously  been  fixed  in  a perpendicular  position. 
If  the  cardboard  is  white  it  will  act  as  a reflector 
and  increase  the  strength  of  the  picture.  All  be- 
ing in  readiness,  as  before  described,  open  the 
camera  shutter,  stand  at  arm’s  length  and  touch 
a match  to  the  lower  corner  of  the  flash  sheet. 

Close  the  camera  shutter. 

When  two  or  more  sheets  are  to  be  used  they 
should  be  pinned  to  the  cardboard,  one  above 
the  other,  the  corners  slightly  overlapping. 

As  a matter  of  precaution,  place  a piece  of 
cardboard  beneath  as  well  as  one  behind  the 
flash  sheet,  so  that  in  case  a piece  of  burning 
powder  should  fall  it  will  do  no  injury. 

In  General. — In  portrait  work  it  is  always  best 
to  have  the  room  well  lighted  when  making  the 
flash,  if  it  can  be  done  in  such  a way  that  none 
of  the  lights  come  within  the  range  of  the  lens. 
If  the  room  is  darkened  the  sudden  flash  of  the 
powder  so  strains  the  eyes  of  the  sitters  that  it 
almost  invariably  gives  them  a staring  look, 
whereas  jf  the  room  is  already  well  illuminated 
by  gas  or  lamplight  the  strain  is  not  great  and 
the  eyes  will  have  a natural  expression.  Of 
course,  where  the  room  is  brightly  lighted  the 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  I05 

shutter  should  not  be  opened  until  the  instant 
before  the  flash  is  made,  and  should  be  closed 
quickly  after  the  flash  is  over. 

When  more  than  one  flashlight  is  to  be  taken 
the  windows  should  be  opened  and  time  allowed 
between  each  flash  to  free  the  room  thoroughly 
from  smoke,  otherwise  all  of  the  pictures  after 
the  first  one  are  liable  to  have  a “foggy”  effect. 
Good  flash  powders  give  a minimum  of  smoke, 
but  the  lens  is  even  keener  than  the  eye,  and 
what  will  seem  to  be  but  little  smoke  in  a room 
will  oftentimes  have  a decided  effect  upon  the 
picture. 

When,  for  any  reason,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
shutter  remain  closed  until  the  instant  the  flash 
is  discharged  and  be  closed  again  instantly  after- 
ward, it  is  well  to  use  a flash  lamp,  as  by  so 
doing  the  shutter  can  be  operated  with  one  hand 
and  the  flash  with  the  other,  and  their  action 
thus  made  simultaneous. 

In  using  the  flash  sheets  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  they  are  not  instantaneous,  and  in  por- 
trait work  the  subjects  should,  therefore,  be 
warned  to  remain  still  the  same  as  if  for  a time 
exposure.  For  photographing  young  children  or 
large  groups  these  sheets  are  not  recommended, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  difficult  to  keep  the 
subjects  quiet  during  exposure.  About  one  and 
one-half  seconds  are  consumed  in  burning  a sin- 
gle sheet,  and  the  light  is  much  less  brilliant 
than  is  the  instantaneous  flash.  This  is  a decided 
advantage  where  the  subjects  can  be  depended 
upon  to  keep  quiet,  as  the  eyes  are  not  strained 
by  the  flash  and  do  not  have  the  staring  effect 
so  often  seen  in  flashlight  pictures. 

Secondary  Uses  of  the  Flashlight. — The  ama* 
teur  ambitious  of  securing  pictorial  effects  will 


io6 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


often  find  an  opportunity  to  use  the  flash  in  con- 
nection with  some  other,  light,  either  artificial 
or  daylight.  Fig.  54,  at  the  beginning  of  this 
chapter,  shows  a picture  taken  in  one  of  the 
Eastman  Kodak  Company’s  dark  rooms  by 
means  of  the  flash  in  conjunction  with  the  in- 
candescent lights.  In  the  dark  room  these  lights 
are  covered  with  orange  paper,  but  for  this  occa- 
sion the  paper  was  removed  from  one  side,  so 
that  a strong  light  would  be  thrown  upon  each 
operator  as  he  stood  at  his  developing  tray.  Two 
charges  of  flash  powder  of  about  one  thimbleful 
each  were  then  arranged,  one  near  the  camera 
and  the  other  behind  a screen  about  half  way 
down  the  room.  The  subjects  being  posed,  two 
minutes’  exposure  was  given  by  the  electric 
lights,  followed  by  the  firing  of  two  small 
charges  of  flash  powder  to  bring  out  just  a trifle 
of  detail  in  the  shadows.  To  the  eyes  of  those 
familiar  with  the  gloom  of  the  dark  room  this 
picture  is  strikingly  effective,  especially  when 
the  lights  and  high  lights  are  given  an  orange 
tint. 

The  portrait  of  the  well-fed  monk,  entitled 
“Come  We  to  This?”  (See  Fig.  55)  is  another 
illustration  of  what  can  be  accomplished  through 
a combination  of  artificial  lights.  After  arrang- 
ing the  subject  and  accessories  a bicycle  lamp, 
put  inside  a box  which  stood  between  the  skull 
and  scroll,  was  so  placed  that  it  threw  a pow- 
erful light  on  the  subject’s  face,  and  was  in  a 
line  toward  the  candle.  After  two  minutes’  ex- 
posure the  box  and  lamp  were  quickly  removed, 
the  candle  lighted,  a weak  flashlight  made  and 
the  shutter  closed. 

These  two  illustrations  are  given  merely  to 
show  the  possibilities  of  producing  pictorial  re- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


107 


suits  by  a combination  of  the  flash  with  other 
artificial  lights.  They  will  suggest  to  the  ama- 
teur many  ways  in  which  this  light  can  be  util- 
ized in  producing  artistic  effects — the  light  from 


Fig.  55. 

a reading  lamp,  or  from  the  grate  fire,  the  light 
from  the  moon — can  all  be  made  to  work  in  such 
harmony  with  the  flash  as  to  produce  photo- 
graphs which  are  not  only  unusual  and  nove' 


io8 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


but  have  also  a lifelikeness  and  fidelity  to  nature 
that  make  them  pictures.  The  flashlight  is  one 
more  agent  that  assists  in  making  the  photog- 
rapher the  master  of  his  camera.  Having  con- 
trol, not  only  of  his  lens,  shutter  and  chemicals, 
but  of  the  source  and  volume  of  his  light,  his 
work  becomes  creative,  and  even  the  devotees  of 
palette  and  brush  must  acknowledge,  if  his  re- 
sults are  pictorial,  that  he  is  an  artist,  not  a 
“mere  copyist.” 

Warning!  Where  Using  a Flashlight  Lamp 

always  turn  the  burner  away  from  the  flash  pan 
when  the  latter  is  being  filled. 

Never  fill  the  pan  when  the  burner  is  lighted 
and  toward  the  pan. 

Never  light  the  burner  when  it  is  over  the 
powder. 

Never  pour  the  powder  from  the  bottle  di- 
rectly into  the  pan. 

Always  use  spoon  or  measuring  cup. 

Never  hold  bulb  in  hand  when  turning  burner 
over  powder.  An  accidental  squeeze  of  bulb 
would  discharge  the  flash. 

Never  use  flashlight  powder  in  magazine 
lamps. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


MISCELLANEOUS  BRANCHES  OF  PHO- 
TOGRAPHY. 

Snapshots  and  Instantaneous  Photography. — 

There  is  a great  deal  of  misconception  in  the 
public  mind  with  regard  to  what  is  called  instan- 
taneous photography.  Many  people  seem  to 
consider  that  it  is  quite  a distinct  invention,  and 
that  it  requires  a peculiar  set  of  apparatus.  It  is 
not  so.  If  you  possess  a lens  which  is  sufficient- 
ly perfect  to  enable  you  to  use  a large  aperture 
without  seriously  impairing  its  defining  powers, 
and  you  use  a rapid  plate,  you  will  simply  re- 
quire a mechanical  contrivance  to  uncover  the 
lens  and  cover  it  up  again  very  quickly,  in  order 
to  blossom  out  as  a full-blown  instantaneous 
photographer,  only  you  must  confine  yourself  to 
brilliantly  lighted  subjects.  It  is  here  that  the 
difference  lies.  An  instantaneous  photograph 
can  only  be  taken  in  a good  light. 

There  is  a strong  temptation  towards  indis- 
criminate snapshotting  when  using  a hand  cam- 
era, for  a new  plate  is  so  easily  brought  into  po- 
sition and  exposed  that  the  user  is  often  inclined 
to  waste  it  on  an  unworthy  subject.  Care  and 
thought  should  always  be  bestowed  upon  every 
photograph  that  is  taken,  whether  it  be  an  8xio 
landscape  or  a 4x5  snapshot,  and  the  knowledge 
which  has  been  gained  in  landscape  and  similar 
work  should  be  applied  to  the  apparently  much 
simpler  hand  camera  photography.  A street 
scene  can  only  be  successfully  taken  in  the 

109 


no 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


brightest  hours  near  noon,  because  it  contains  all 
those  elements — heavy  shadows  in  the  fore- 
ground, etc. — which  in  landscape  work  necessitate 
a longer  exposure,  and  as  in  this  case  the  time 
cannot  be  drawn  out  because  of  the  moving  ob- 
jects in  the  picture,  the  other  factor — light — 
must  be  increased  in  compensation.  Out  in  the 
country,  however,  where  the  light  is  not  partially 
absorbed  by  a heavy  pall  of  smoke,  those  pleas- 
ing little  studies  of  children  and  “grown-ups” 
and  of  pastoral  life  generally,  of  which  the  hand 
camera  is  such  an  excellent  portrayer,  may  be 
successfully  attempted  in  spring  or  autumn, 
while  sea  and  sky  effects — the  brightest  things 
in  nature — can  be  photographed  in  midwinter, 
and  even  skating  scenes,  when  the  sun  is  shin- 
ing, and  there  is  plenty  of  snow  about  to  reflect 
its  light,  come  just  within  the  scope  of  the  hand 
camera  bearer. 

The  two  great  things  to  bear  in  mind  when 
contemplating  instantaneous  exposures  are : 
Hold  the  camera  perfectly  still,  for  the  least 
tremor  is  disastrous,  and  be  quite  sure  there  is 
sufficient  light  upon  the  subject.  Then  with 
rapid  plates  and  a quick  lens  and  an  eye  well 
enough  trained  to  choose  a good  position,  a good 
subject,  and  to  seize  the  right  moment  for  ex- 
posure, a satisfactory  photograph  can  hardly  fail 
to  result. 

Photographing  Moving  Objects. — There  is 
probably  nothing  in  picture  taking  in  which  the 
amateur  asks  more  unreasonable  things  than  in 
the  making  of  snapshots  of  rapidly  moving  ob- 
jects. If,  for  instance,  he  is  an  enthusiastic  bi- 
cyclist, he  takes  his  camera  to  the  first  race  meet, 
secures  a position  alongside  the  tape,  and  as  the 
riders  finish,  sprinting  at  a 1 140  clip,  he  takes  a 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  1 1 I 

broadside  of  them  from  a distance  of  ten  feet 
and  is  disappointed  in  the  resulting  blur,  for  he 
has  nothing  else.  Now,  let  us  see  the  reason 
for  this. 

If  he  has  a double  lens  instrument  with  pneu- 
matic shutter  it  has  worked  in  approximately 
1-50  of  a second,  an  apparently  very  short  space 
of  time,  but  we  find  on  figuring  it  out  that  a bi- 
cyclist riding  at  the  rate  of  a mile  in  one  minute 
forty  seconds  covers  52.8  feet  in  a second,  or  over 
twelve  inches  in  1-50  of  a second,  the  time  the 
shutter  is  open — a sufficient  distance  to  ruin  the 
image.  The  distance  the  image  will  move  on  the 
plate  during  exposure  is  to  the  distance  the  ob- 
ject moves,  as  the  focal  length  of  lens  is  to  dis- 
tance from  lens  to  object.  In  this  case  we  will 
suppose  the  focus  of  lens  to  be  six  inches,  and 
we  know  the  distance  from  lens  to  object  to 
be  ten  feet  (120  inches)  and  the  distance  the  ob- 
ject moves  approximately  twelve  inches.  We 
will  let  X stand  for  distance  image  moves  on  the 
plate  and  it  gives  us  the  following  equation : 
X : 12  : : 6 : 120  — 6-10.  Of  course,  the  object 
moving  6-10  of  an  inch  on  the  plate  ruins  the 
picture.  We  find  then  that  in  order  to  take 
pictures  of  moving  objects  at  right  angles  there 
are  two  factors  of  prime  importance — the  speed 
of  shutter  and  the  distance  from  the  object. 
In  the  ordinary  amateur  outfit  the  shutter  speed 
cannot  be  materially  increased  and  he  must  there- 
fore take  the  picture  from  further  away.  Ex- 
periment has  proven  that  in  order  to  successfully 
take  pictures  of  rapidly  moving  horses,  etc.,  from 
a position  near  by  and  at  right  angles  the  shutter 
must  work  in  from  1-500  to  1-1000  of  a second 
(Muybridge  claimed  to  have  used  a shutter  work- 
ing in  1-2000  of  a second)  and  this  extreme  speed 


1 12 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


necessitates  a special  camera  and  lens  as  well 
as  a special  shutter,  and  then  the  resulting  photo- 
graphs are  mere  silhouettes,  because  with  the 
present  speed  of  plates  and  films  there  is  not 
time  to  get  any  detail.  But  there  are  tricks  in 
all  trades  and  satisfactory  pictures  of  rapidly 
moving  objects  can  be  readily  made  by  photo- 
graphing them  from  partly  in  front  as  well  as 
from  a reasonable  distance.  The  accompanying 
picture  (Fig.  56),  a railroad  train  moving  at  full 
speed,  shows  plainly  what  can  be  done  in  this 


Fig.  56. 


direction.  It  was  made  with  a small  kodak  and 
is  a good  illustration  of  what  can  be  accom- 
plished by  taking  the  picture  from  a point  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  object  and  also 
somewhat  ahead  of  it.  By  acting  on  this  hint 
the  amateur  can  soon  learn  to  take  pictures  of 
rapidly  moving  objects,  and  in  such  a manner 
as  to  avoid  materially  the  disagreeable  effect  of 
blurring. 

Copying. — It  occasionally  happens  that  the 
amateur  may  wish  to  make  a photographic  copy 
of  a painting  or  engraving  of  another  photo- 


MODERN  THOTOGRAPHY.  113 

graph  which  has  acquired  value  owing  to  the 
death,  perhaps,  of  the  original  of  the  portrait. 
Where  any  quantity  of  such  work  has  to  be 
done  special  apparatus  should  be  employed, 
whereby  the  camera  may  be  always  retained  with 
its  optical  axis  exactly  at  right  angles  to  the 
plane  of  the  picture  to  be  copied,  but  for  the 
occasional  requirements  of  the  amateur  a more 
makeshift  method  will  be  found  to  answer  the 
purpose.  The  picture  to  be  copied  should  be 
attached  by  any  ready  means  to  a vertical  board 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  a window  through 
which  a strong  diffused  light  shines  upon  it. 
A very  good  plan  is  to  attach  it  to  the  folding 
shutter  of  the  window,  if  it  has  one,  for  that  can 
be  placed  at  different  angles  until  a position  is 
found  where  the  light  falls  upon  it  in  the  most 
suitable  direction.  The  camera,  which  must  be 
of  the  long  bellows  variety,  so  as  to  admit  of 
being  racked  out  to  a considerable  extent,  is 
placed  exactly  opposite  it,  both  as  regards  height 
and  lateral  position,  and  it  will  be  found  that 
some  considerable  maneuvering  is  necessary  in 
order  to  bring  the  image  into  the  desired  posi- 
tion on  the  ground  glass  screen  and  of  the  right 
size  and  in  good  focus.  When  this  is  satisfac- 
torily accomplished  the  smallest  stop  should  be 
inserted  in  the  lens  and  a rather  long  exposure 
given. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  lighting  is  not 
too  much  from  the  side  of  the  grain  of  the  paper, 
or  the  brush  marks,  as  the  case  may  be,  will  be 
painfully  apparent  on  the  finished  copy ; but,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  light  must  not  fall  too  per- 
pendicularly upon  the  work,  or  some  of  it  will 
be  reflected  directly  into  the  lens  from  the  shiny 
surface,  which  last  state  is  worse  than  the  first. 


1 14  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

In  the  case  of  engravings  or  other  pictures  hav- 
ing black  lines  on  a white  ground,  the  exposure 
should  be  comparatively  short,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  flatness  which  results  from  weakness  of  con- 
trast in  the  negative,  and  in  copying  paintings 
and  all  colored  objects  very  great  advantage  will 
accrue  from  the  use  of  orthochromatic  plates  in 
conjunction  with  a yellow  screen,  the  uses  of 
which  have  been  fully  explained  in  another  chap- 
ter. 

Reducing  and  Enlarging. — The  same  rule  as 

given  for  copying  can  be  applied  to  these  pro- 
cesses. Assuming  that  it  is  desired  to  obtain  a 
small  negative  from  a larger  print,  the  print  is 
placed  in  position  as  outlined  above  and  the 
camera  is  moved  from  it  until  the  image  shown 
on  the  ground  glass  is  of  the  desired  size.  The 
camera  is  then  focused  and  the  exposure  made. 

The  same  rule  applies  to  the  making  of  a nega- 
tive larger  than  the  print  from  which  it  is  copied. 
If  the  amateur  has  an  8xio  camera  and  desires  to 
make  an  8xio  negative  from  a 4x5  print,  the  print 
is  placed  in  position  according  to  directions 
given  for  copying.  The  camera  is  moved  toward 
same  and  roughly  focused  until  the  image  shown 
on  the  ground  glass  covers  the  glass  completely. 
The  camera  is  then  sharply  focused  and  exposure 
made. 

How  to  Make  an  Enlarged  Negative. — If  the 

operator  with  the  8x10  camera  desires  to  make, 
sav,  a 14x17  negative  the  process  of  making  the 
enlargement  is  entirely  different. 

A means  by  which  the  user  of  a small  camera 
can  turn  out  large  pictures  is  by  making  an  en- 
larged negative  and  printing  the  picture  direct 
from  it  by  contact,  according  to  any  of  the  print- 
ing methods  in  general  use.  The  making  of  an 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  * 1 1 5 

enlarged  negative  is  a very  similar  operation  to 
the  production  of  an  enlarged  bromide  print 
(See  Chapter  XX),  the  chief  difference  being 
that  a large  sheet  of  glass  is  handled  instead  of 
a piece  of  paper. 

The  number  of  operations  required  is  doubled, 
for  two  negatives  and  two  positives  have  to 
be  made  before  the  photograph  is  finished.  How- 
ever, it  is  not  feasible  to  make  a direct  photo- 
graphic enlargement  on  platinotype  or  any  of  the 
printing-out  papers,  and  therefore  it  occasionally 
happens  that  an  enlarged  negative  is  a neces- 
sity. 

The  first  step  is  to  make  by  contact  a really 
good  positive  print  on  glass — a transparency 
which,  like  a good  negative,  has  that  due  pro- 
portion of  detail  to  density ; not  too  much  or  too 
little  of  either  one  or  the  other.  This  is  called 
good  printing  quality.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
enter  into  details  as  to  how  this  is  accomplished. 
Follow  method  given  elsewhere  for  making  lan- 
tern slides  by  contact  (Chapter  XXI).  It  is 
better  to  employ  a glass  plate  specially  pre- 
pared for  positive  transparency  work,  such  as 
a lantern  plate,  and  to  use  one  of  the  developers 
recommended  for  positives  rather  than  for 
negatives.  The  ferrous  oxalate  developer,  of 
which  the  formula  is  given  in  connection  with 
bromide  paper,  will  be  found  to  yield  excellent 
transparencies  if  the  instructions  as  to  clearing, 
etc.,  be  carefully  carried  out.  It  should  be 
used  in  a stronger  form  than  that  recommended 
for  the  bromide  paper,  say  one  part  of  the  iron 
solution  to  four,  or  even  less,  of  the  oxalate,  the 
former  being,  of  course,  poured  into  the  latter 
and  not  in  the  opposite  order.  Or  the  hydro- 


Il6  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

quinone  developer,  of  which  a formula  is  ob- 
tained from  the  makers  of  the  plates,  may  be  used 
with  results  that  cannot  be  surpassed. 

The  sensitive  glass  plate  upon  which  the  en- 
larged negative  is  to  be  taken  may  also  with  ad- 
vantage be  of  the  transparency  variety,  though 
in  this  case  it  may  be  developed  with  pyro  or 
any  other  reducing  agent  which  may  happen 
to  be  the  particular  favorite  of  the  photographer, 
provided  always  that  it  is  suitable  to  the  pe- 
culiarities of  the  plate  used.  The  plate  is  at- 
tached to  an  easel  just  as  it  would  be  if  it  were 
bromide  paper,  except  that  drawing  pins  be- 
ing inadmissible,  some  other  method  of  fasten- 
ing must  be  adopted.  A very  good  plan  is  to 
drive  three  wire  nails  into  the  woodwork  of  the 
easel,  two  of  them  on  a line  with  one  another 
and  sloping  slightly  upwards,  while  the  third 
is  considerably  higher  on,  say,  the  righthand 
side,  with  its  head  inclined  towards  the  left. 
The  lower  edge  of  the  plate  rests  on  the  two 
lower  nails  and  is  pushed  up  against  the  remain- 
ing one  so  that  it  is  prevented  from  falling  for- 
ward. With  regard  to  the  exposure,  some  idea 
of  its  length  will  have  been  gained  from  previous 
experience  with  bromide  paper,  but  a preliminary 
experiment  or  two  should  be  made  on  a smaller 
plate  of  the  same  make,  for  these  large  ones  are 
expensive. 

Development  is  conducted  in  a precisely  simi- 
lar manner  as  in  the  case  of  an  original  nega- 
tive, having  regard  to  the  particular  printing 
process  for  which  it  is  intended.  Thus,  for  plati- 
num paper  it  should  not  be  at  all  yellow  and  need 
not  be  of  quite  so  plucky  a character  as  if  it  is 
required  for  printing  upon  printing-out  paper  or 
other  similarly  constituted  medium. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


ii  7 


Stereoscopic  Photography. — It  would  no  doubt 
occasion  surprise  were  I to  state  that  it  is  habit- 
ual for  a person  to  “see  double” ; ^et  it  is  true. 
If  a book  is  held  edgeways  before  the  eyes  one 
side  will  be  seen  with  one  eye  and  the  reverse 
side  with  the  other.  The  same  thing  occurs  to 
some  extent  with  every  object  viewed.  One  eye 
sees  a little  more  of  one  side  and  a little  less  of 
the  other  of  every  solid  object  that  the  eye  can 


Fig.  57. 

embrace.  There  is  not  much  difference,  I admit, 
but  there  is  a little,  and  it  is  that  difference  which 
enables  you  to  tell  that  an  object  is  solid  without 
walking  around  it.  If  you  stand  perfectly  still 
and  look  at  an  ordinary  landscape  you  can  be 
quite  certain  that  some  portions  of  it  are  nearer 
to  you  than  others,  and  you  can  even  make  a 
pretty  accurate  guess  as  to  the  relative  distances 
of  different  objects.  But  if  you  look  at  a photo- 
graph or  painting  of  that  landscape  you  will  soon 
be  able  to  find  some  details  in  it  which  you  can- 


ii8 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


not  for  the  life  of  you  tell  which  are  nearer  and 
which  farther  away  from  the  observer,  while  only 
those  things  which  you  know  from  previous  ex- 
perience must  be  solid  can  you  with  certainty 
invest  with  that  quality. 

But  if  you  take  two  photographs  of  that  land- 
scape from  standpoints  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  about  the  distance  there  is  between 
your  two  eyes  and  place  them  side  by  side  and 
look  at  the  righthand  one  with  the  right  eye  and 
lefthand  one  with  the  other  these  two  pictures 
will  be  blended  together  when  the  impression 
reaches  your  brain,  and  you  will  get  an  idea  of 
solidity  and  differential  distance  just  as  if  you 
were  looking  at  the  original  natural  landscape. 
But  there  are  very  few  persons  who  have  ac- 
quired the  art  of  looking  at  two  different  pictures 
with  their  two  eyes  separately,  and  the  majority 
are  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  a specially-con- 
structed instrument  known  as  a “stereoscope,” 
so  called  because  it  enables  you  to  “see  solid.” 

It  is  not  such  a very  long  time  since  no  fash- 
ionable drawing-room  was  deemed  complete 
without  its  stereoscope  and  set  of  photographs 
for  the  same,  and  even  now,  in  many  homes,  the 
instrument  is  to  be  found  enthroned — for  at  one 
time  this  most  beautiful  branch  of  photography 
enjoyed  immense  popularity.  However,  its  star 
waned,  unfortunately,  though  the  signs  of  the 
times  are  that  it  is  once  more  in  the  ascendant. 
Meanwhile  there  are  many  devotees  who  recog- 
nize the  marvelously  beautiful  results  which  are 
possible  with  the  stereoscope,  and  who,  by  their 
patient  work  and  excellent  photography,  will  be 
the  means  of  placing  the  neglected  art  once  more 
on  its  former  pedestal. 

Stereoscopic  photographs  are  not  very  difficult 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  II9 

to  make.  A special  camera  is  required,  having 
two  lenses  exactly  alike,  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  about  three  inches,  and  each  casting  an 
image  upon  one  photographic  plate  of  a suitable 
shape  to  receive  them  side  by  side.  (See  Fig.  58.) 
The  interior  of  the  camera  is  divided  into  two 
compartments,  so  that  one  picture  shall  not  en- 
croach upon  the  space  reserved  for  the  other. 
Stereoscopic  lenses  have  to  be  accurately  paired 
in  order  to  produce  pictures  of  exactly  similar 


Fig.  58. 


character  as  regards  the  size  of  the  objects  de- 
picted, for  lenses  of  the  same  make  are  rarely 
identical  as  regards  focal  length  unless  specially 
selected.  The  two  lenses  are  attached  together 
by  a specially-designed  duplex  shutter. .All  these 
things,  can  be  obtained  from  the  photographic 
dealers,  so  that  the  amateur  who  aspires  to 
stereoscopic  work — and  he  can  hardly  have  a 
nobler  ambition — will  not  find  any  difficulties  in 
procuring  the  materials  he  will  require. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  some  subjects  are  far 


120 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


more  suitable  to  stereoscopic  treatment  than 
others,  and  success  in  this  branch  of  photography 
is  largely  a matter  of  the  judicious  choice  of 
subjects.  For  instance,  an  open  landscape  view, 
in  which  all  portions  are  of  considerable  distance 
from  the  camera,  will  not  have  its  effect  at  all 
heightened  by  stereoscopic  treatment,  for  there 
are  no  objects  in  the  foreground  round  which  the 
camera  can  look,  as  it  were,  and  all  the  constitu- 
ent parts  are  so  distant  and  so  much'of  one  plane 
that  there  is  nothing  to  which  solidity  can  be 
given.  In  stereoscopic  photography  distance 
does  not  lend  enchantment  to  the  view,  unless 
there  is  something  in  the  foreground  to  accentu- 
ate that  distance  and  to  give  it  effect.  Choose 
a subject  in  which  there  are  several  planes,  one 
behind  another,  clearly  defined  by  some  conspicu- 
ous object  in  each,  and  then  the  full  and  mar- 
velous effect  of  this  '‘solid-seeing”  photography 
will  be  brought  out. 

But  there  is  one  thing  in  connection  with  it 
which  must  have  particular  attention,  and  that 
is  the  great  importance  of  ensuring  that  that  pic- 
ture which  in  nature  would  be  seen  with  the  right 
eye  is  placed,  in  the  righthand  half  of  the  stereo- 
scope, or  else  the  whole  landscape  will  appear 
to  be  turned  inside  out.  It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand that  if  one  eye  receives  the  impression 
that  ought  to  go  to  the  other  the  brain,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  combine  the  two,  gets  considerably 
muddled  up  between  them,  and  the  result  is  a 
most  peculiar  mixture. 

The  two  pictures  fall  side  by  side  upon  the 
photographic  plate,  the  lefthand  one  on  the  left 
side  and  the  right  on  the  other,  but  each  picture 
is,  of  course,  separately  inverted  as  regards  left 
and  right  as  well  as  top  and  bottom.  Then, 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


121 


when  a print  is  made  from  the  compound  nega- 
tive, the  lateral  inversion  is  corrected ; that  is  to 
say,  the  righthand  side  of  each  picture  appears 
upon  the  right,  but  both  are  still  upside  down. 
That  is  easily  corrected,  you  will  say,  by  turn- 
ing the  whole  thing  the  other  way  up.  Yes,  that 
is  so.  But  in  doing  so  you  will  reverse  the  rela- 
tive positions  of  the  pictures,  and  put  that  one 
which  has  been  taken  with  the  lefthand  lens  upon 
the  righthand  side,  which  is  just  what  I warned 
you  against.  The  photographs  will  require 
transposing;  the  print  must  be  cut  in  half  along 
the  central  line,  and  the  positions  of  the  halves 
reversed.  The  operation,  of  course,  is  simply 
equivalent  to  taking  the  two  pictures — which 
were  produced  upside  down  in  the  camera — and 
separately  turning  them  right  way  up.  If  it 
be  particularly  required  to  print  upon  one  piece 
of  paper  the  negative  itself  may  be  cut  in  two 
and  its  two  halves  transposed. 

Trick  Photography. — In  addition  to  its  more 
serious  picture-making  uses,  the  camera  is  ca- 
pable of  affording  the  amateur  photographer 
many  opportunities  of  amusing  and  mystifying 
his  friends.  For  instance,  so-called  “spirit”  photo- 
graphs : The  sitter  should  be  posed  and  the 

camera  arranged  all  ready  for  the  exposure  in 
the  usual  way.  The  spirit  or  ghost  must  then 
take  up  his  position  in  some  expressive  attitude 
behind  the  sitter,  and,  using  a small  stop,  a very 
short  exposure  should  be  given.  The  spirit  then 
moves  away,  and  without  any  movement  of 
either  camera  or  sitter  a second  exposure  of 
longer  duration  should  be  made.  On  develop- 
ment of  the  negative  it  will  be  found  that  the 
spirit  comes  out  as  a shadowy,  transparent  form, 
while  the  remainder  of  the  picture  is  precisely 


122 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


the  same  as  an  ordinary  photograph.  A more 
hazy  appearance  may  be  imparted  to  the  spirit 
by  placing  a piece  of  fine  muslin  gauze  in  front 
of  the  lens  during  the  first  exposure.  A photo- 
graph by  this  plan  can  only  be  made  by  conniv- 
ance with  a sitter.  If,  however,  the  photographer 
wishes  to  obtain  a similar  result,  without  the 
sitter  knowing  what  is  being  done,  the  first  ex- 
posure on  the  “spirit”  may*  be  made  some  hours 
or  even  days  before  the  actual  portrait  of  the 
sitter  is  taken,  though,  of  course,  the  same  plate 
should  be  used  for  both  exposures. 

Some  interesting  photographic  pictures  may 
be  obtained  by  the  use  of  one  or  more  mirrors, 
and,  indeed,  by  standing  opposite  a mirror,  the 
amateur  may  perpetuate  his  own  portrait.  By 
placing  a sitter  between  a pair  of  parallel  mir- 
rors, arranged  at  a certain  angle,  so  as  not  to  re- 
flect either  the  camera  or  operator,  an  interesting 
multiple  portrait  may  be  obtained,  the  one  indi- 
vidual blossoming  out  into  a whole  row  of  ex- 
actly similar  people.  Also  by  arranging  mirrors 
at  proper  angles  the  full  face  and  right  and  left 
profile  views  of  a person  can  be  obtained  on  the 
same  plate  at  one  exposure.  The  distorted 
images  presented  by  concave  and  convex  mirrors 
may  also  be  humorously  turned  to  photographic 
account. 

Probably  some  of  my  readers  have  seen  photo- 
graphs of  a man  playing  cards  with  himself,  or 
of  a man  about  to  cut  his  own  head  off.  These 
pictures  are  termed  “doubles,”  and  are  produced 
by  the  aid  of  an  arrangement  with  two  shutters 
which  fits  on  to  the  front  of  the  camera  and  which 
allows  only  half  the  plate  to  be  exposed  at  once. 
The  card  player  seats  himself  at  one  side  of  the 
card  table  and  poses  ready  for  the  exposure.  The 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


123 


righthand  shutter  on  the  exposing  apparatus  is 
then  opened  and  one-half  of  the  plate  exposed. 
The  man  then  moves  to  the  other  side  of  the 
table,  and  when  he  has  placed  himself  in  proper 
position  the  lefthand  shutter  is  opened  and  the 
other  half  of  the  plate  exposed.  A simpler  way 
of  effecting  the  same  result  is  to  use  a little  de- 
vice, procurable  from  any  dealer  in  photographic 
supplies,  known  as  a duplicator,  or  to  cut  a small 
disc  of  black  cardboard  just  to  fit  inside  the  front 
end  of  the  brass  lens  mount.  A segment  of  this 
disc  of  sufficient  size  to  expose  rather  more  than 
half  the  plate  is  then  cut  off  this  disc.  The 
lens  mount  is  not  screwed  tight  home  in  its 
flange  on  the  camera  front,  but  is  left  just  loose 
so  that  it  can  easily  be  revolved  half  a turn  with- 
out disturbing  the  camera.  The  subject  should 
first  be  focused,  and  then  the  cue  disc  placed  in 
position  with  the  straight  edge  vertical.  The 
sitter  is  then  posed  and  an  exposure  made.  The 
lens  mount  is  then  turned  round  through  half  a 
revolution,  the  sitter  changes  his  place  to  the  re- 
quired position,'  and  a second  exposure  is  made. 
In  each  case,  of  course,  the  sitter  should  be  di- 
rectly in  front  of  the  uncovered  portion  of  the 
lens. 

Caricature  portraits  may  be  made  in  several 
different  ways.  For  instance,  take  two  photo- 
graphs of  a friend,  one  of  the  head  alone  and  the 
other  of  the  whole  figure ; but  the  latter  should 
be  on  a much  smaller  scale  than  the  former. 
Take  a print  from  each  negative,  and  then  neatly 
cut  out  the  large  head  from  the  first  print  and 
paste  it  on  to  the  shoulders  of  the  small  figure 
in  the  second  print.  From  the  composite  picture 
thus  obtained  make  another  negative,  and  then 
any  number  of  prints  can  be  obtained  from  this, 


24 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


showing  your  friend  with  a very  big  head  on  a 
very  small  body.  Another  plan  is  to  make  a 
comical  drawing  on  a sheet  of  cardboard  of  a 
body  and  a pair  of  legs.  Then  the  sitter  who 
is  to  be  caricatured  should  hold  this  drawing  fn 
front  of  him,  and,  placing  his  head  just  over 
the  shoulders  in  the  drawing,  should  be  photo- 
graphed in  this  position. 

An  amusing  departure  from  the  orthodox  style 
of  portraiture  may  be  made  by  presenting  a 
friend  with  a picture  of  himself  inside  a bottle. 
This  should  be  prepared  as  follows : First  photo- 
graph the  individual  on  a sufficiently  small  scale 
to  fit  in  with  the  size  of  the  bottle.  In  this  pic- 
ture surrounding  objects  should  not  be  allowed 
to  appear.  Then  the  bottle  is  photographed  large 
enough  to  contain  the  man,  and  then  by  the 
combined  use  of  the  two  negatives  the  finished 
print  is  made. 

X-Rays  and  Their  Uses. — At  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1896  the  whole  world,  both  scientists 
and  laymen,  were  startled  by  the  announcement 
that  a means  had  been  discovered  of  photograph- 
ing the  living  human  skeleton.  And  when  a few 
days  later  the  statement  was  substantiated  by 
the  actual  photographs  of  the  bones  of  the  living 
hand  popular  excitement  rose  to  a height  which 
has  rarely  been  reached  on  account  of  a scientific 
discovery. 

Professor  Roentgen,  of  Wurtzburg,  was  ex- 
perimenting with  some  high  vacuum  electrical 
apparatus  called,  after  the  inventor,  “Crookes’ 
Tubes,”  and  he  happened  to  have  some  sensitive 
photographic  plates  lying  upon  the  table,  and  he 
found  that,  by  some  means  he  did  not  under- 
stand, these  plates,  though  securely  guarded 
against  the  action  of  light  in  the  usual  manner 


M ODER N PHOTOGRAPHY. 


125 


by  black  paper  wrappings,  became  fogged,  just 
as  if  light  had  access  to  them.  He,  therefore, 
tried  a few  experiments  with  them,  and  these 
led  to  those  curious  and  valuable  results  which 
have  now  made  his  name  famous  all  the  world 
over.  He  discovered  that  there  was  an  invisible 
radiation  from  these  Crookes’  tubes  which  is  not 
light,  or  at  any  rate  is  not  light  of  the  kind  with 
which  we  are  familiar,  for  it  obeys  none  of  the 
natural  laws  which  govern  all  kinds  of  light, 
visible  and  invisible,  with  which  we  have  ever 
had  to  do.  The  fact  that  this  “New  Photog- 
raphy,” as  it  has  been  termed,  has  awakened  so 
much  interest  is  largely  due  to  the  happy  thought 
which  suggested  that  the  effect  of  the  new  rays 
should  be  tried  upon  the  human  hand,  when  it 
was  found  that  they  would  penetrate  the  flesh, 
but  they  could  not  pass  the  bones.  Conse- 
quently, upon  a photographic  plate  placed  be- 
hind, the  curious  result  was  obtained  of  a shadow 
photograph  of  part  of  the  living  skeleton. 

But  there  are  many  other  substances  besides 
flesh  and  blood  towards  which  these  unknown 
rays — they  are  called  “X-Rays,”  because  their 
nature  is  not  known — behave  in  a peculiar  man- 
ner; in  fact,  their  effect  upon  the  majority  of 
things  is  quite  different  to  what  might  have 
been  expected  from  our  previous  experience  in 
relation  to  ordinary  light.  For  instance,  glass 
is  very  nearly  opaque  to  this  mysterious  radia- 
tion, while  wood  and  cardboard  are  almost  per- 
fectly transparent.  An  ordinary  photographic 
lens  with  which  to  bring  these  rays  to  a focus 
is,  of  course,  out  of  the  question,  but  that  does 
not  matter  much,  for,  if  glass  were  ever  so  trans- 
parent to  them,  it  would  not  have  the  desired 
effect,  for  the  rays  cannot  be  refracted.  So  it 


126 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


will  be  seen  these  “New  Photographs”  are  not 
taken  by  means  of  light,  as  far  as  we  can  make 
out,  and  they  are  certainly  not  taken  with  a 
camera.  They  are  “shadowgraphs,”  pure  and 
simple,  and  the  agency  by  which  they  are  made 
is  probably  some  form  of  radiant  electricity. 

In  making  these  “electrographs,”  as  we  might 
call  them,  a large  Rhumkorff  induction  coil  is 
employed  in  connection  with  an  electric  battery 
or  other  source  of  low  tension  electricity  to 
furnish  the  high  potential  current  required  to 
actuate  the  Crookes’  tube.  The  active  rays 
spring  from  the  negative  electrode  of  the  tube 
when  excited  by  the  electricity,  and  in  the  best 
forms  of  tube  for  this  special  purpose  they  are 
received  upon  a little  mirror  of  platinum,  placed 
just  opposite  the  cathode — as  the  negative  plate 
is  termed — and  so  inclined  that  they  are  reflected 
downwards  towards  the  sensitive  plate  placed 
beneath. 

Let  us  suppose  that  what  up  to  the  present 
has  been  the  most  popular  of  all’ subjects  has  been 
chosen  to  be  electrographed — the  living  hand.  A 
large  sensitive  plate  of  the  ordinary  kind  is 
wrapped  up  in  a black  paper  envelope,  which 
will  protect  it  from  the  access  of  light,  so  that  the 
operation  may  be  conducted  in  a well-lighted 
room  with  impunity.  The  hand  whose  bones  it 
is  desired  to  shadowgraph  is  then  laid  on  the 
plate,  and  the  vacuum  tube  arranged  at  a height 
of  about  six  inches  over  it.  Then,  the  owner  of 
the  hand  having  been  cautioned  to  keep  it  as 
still  as  possible,  the  electric  current  is  turned 
on  and  the  invisible  radiations  ’from  the  tube 
allowed  to  act  upon  the  plate  for  a period  of 
five  minutes  down  to  half  a minute,  or  even  less, 
according  to  the  size  and  power  of  the  coil.  Then 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


• 127 

the  plate  is  taken  to  a dark  room  and  developed 
in  the  ordinary  manner,  and,  all  being  well,  it 
will  show  the  flesh  of  the  hand  of  a dark  gray 
on  a black  background,  upon  which  the  bones 
stand  out  plainly  revealed  and  almost  white, 
while  any  metallic  objects,  such  as  rings,  being 
absolutely  opa.que  to  the  rays,  will  show  up  with 
brilliant  whiteness. 

MOVING  PICTURE  MACHINES  AND  MO- 
TION PHOTOGRAPHY. 


In  the  year  1887  the  idea  occurred  to  that  great 
inventive  genius  Thomas  A.  Edison,  to  devise  an 


Fig.  59. 


Giving  front  view  of  the  Edison  Projecting  Kinetoscope. 
Rheostat  on  the  right.  Light  centered  on  Stereopticon  lens, 
which  is  shown  adjusted  to  its  position  on  the  left-hand  edge 
of  the  carrying  case. 

instrument  which  should  do  for  the  eye  what 
the  Phonograph  does  for  the  ear.  This  idea  was 
partially  accomplished  in  the  production  of  the 


128  • 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


first  motion  picture  machine,  the  original  Kineto- 
scope.  The  early  Kinetoscope  was  a ponderous 
and  high-priced  apparatus.  It  may  be  briefly  de- 
scribed as  a box  with  a peephole  in  the  top.  With 
this  machine  only  one  person  at  a time  could 
enjoy  the  moving  picture,  owing  to  mechanical 
limitations. 

The  moving  picture  projecting  machine  of 
to-day,  as  the  name  implies,  is  an  apparatus  for 
throwing  apparently  living  pictures  and  actual 
scenes  upon  a canvas  or  screen. 

Owing  to  the  simplifying  of  the  apparatus  and 
to  the  fact  that  the  best  machines  are  now  so  con- 
structed that  in  them  can  be  used  not  only  the 
flexible  film  for  projecting  upon  a screen  the  life- 
like image  of  objects  in  motion,  but  also  the  lan- 
tern slides  for  making  stationary  pictures,  the 
form  of  entertainment  made  possible  by  the  use 
of  these  machines  has,  in  the  past  few  years, 
grown  enormously  popular. 

This  marvelous  instrument  represents  the  very 
highest  development  in  the  art  of  photography — 
that  of  bringing  before  the  eye  an  exact  life-size 
reproduction  of  life  motion,  with  all  its  accom- 
panying effects  of  light,  shade  and  expression. 
By  means  of  a transparent  picture  film,  an  intense 
light  and  proper  arrangement  of  lenses,  the  pic- 
tures are  projected  upon  a screen  one  after  an- 
other, in  such  rapid  succession  that  the  eye  can- 
not perceive  any  intermission  between  them,  thus 
producing  a perfect  illusion  of  continuous  motion. 

The  Principle  of  the  Moving  Picture  Machine 
is  the  same  as  the  Stereopticon  or  Magic  Lan- 
tern, only  that  the  pictures  appear  on  a transpar- 
ent film  and  pass  before  the  lenses  in  rapid  suc- 
cession. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


m 


The  picture  film  is  a long  strip  of  celluloid 
inches  in  width  and  in  length  from  25  feet  up- 
ward, according  to  the  subject.  The  usual  length 
of  a film  is  from  50  to  100  feet.  One  minute  is 

required  to  run  a 50-foot 
film  through  the  exhibi- 
tion machine.  The  size  of 
each  photograph  is 
inch  by  1 inch  wide.  Each 
50-foot  film  consists  of 
about  800  instantaneous 
photographs,  each  slight- 
ly different  from  the 
other,  taken  while  the  film 
is  passing  the  lens  at  a 
rate  of  about  15  to  25 
photographs  per  second. 
To  produce  the  animated 
movements  the  film  must 
be  moved  past  the  pro- 
jecting lens  of  the  motion 
picture  machine  at  the 
same  rate  of  speed.  From 
the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  film  all  the  movements  will  be  recorded 
that  have  been  exhibited  before  the  machine 
when  the  picture  was  taken.  For  each  sub- 
ject a separate  film  is  necessary.  The  edges  of 
the  film  are  perforated,  to  pass  over  the  sprocket 
device  carrying  the  film  while  the  subject  is  pho- 
tographed. Similar  sprocket  wheels  in  the  pro- 
jecting machine  carry  the  film  in  front  of  an  im- 
tense  light,  which  projects  the  picture  upon  the 
screen,  thus  both  magnifying  and  illuminating  the 
photograph. 

So  life-like,  so  true  to  nature  and  so  perfect  in 


THE  BATH. 

Sample  of  Moving  Picture 
Film,  exact  size. 


130  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

every  detail,  with  such  life-like  motions  are  the 
pictures  as  projected  by  these  machines,  that  the 
observer  can  scarcely  realize  that  what  is  before 
him  is  but  a picture  and  not  reality. 

In  the  commercial  world  the  use  of  the  moving 
picture  machine  is  growing.  Manufacturers  of 
heavy  machinery  and  of  mechanisms  not  easily 
portable,  can  send  a picture  demonstration  to  the 
uttermost  parts  of  the  world,  at  small  expense. 
Thus  the  exact  working  of  a piece  of  machinery 
can  be  shown  to  a prospective  customer  in  South 
Africa,  with  as  much  clearness  of  detail  as  if  the 
purchaser  were  examining  the  machine  itself. 

The  moving  picture  machine  has,  as  stated  be- 
fore, grown  rapidly  in  popular  favor  of  recent 
years.  It  amuses  and  it  teaches.  It  combines 
profitable  instruction  with  delightful  entertain- 
ment. The  list  of  films  now  at  the  disposal  of 
buyers  covers  a wide  variety  of  topics,  some  of 
them  of  great  historical  value.  Many  of  the  sub- 
jects will  attain  value  as  pictorial  history  which 
cannot  be  estimated  in  money.  Such  films  as  the 
Launching  of  the  “Meteor,”  the  Funeral  of  Queen 
Victoria,  President  McKinley’s  Last  Speech,  the 
Funeral  Ceremonies  at  Buffalo,  Washington  and 
Canton,  will  offer  material  for  accurate  descrip- 
tion that  was  impossible  previous  to  the  inven- 
tion of  the  motion  picture  machine  and  moving 
pictures. 

There  are  many  languages  upon  this  earth  of 
ours,  but  pictures  are  the  universal  language, 
and  future  students  of  the  historical  will  have 
reason  for  gratitude  because  of  the  invention  of 
the  moving  picture  machine,  for  by  its  aid  his- 
tory is  being  recorded  every  day.  Miles  of  films 
are  being  filed  away  each  month  in  the  archives 
of  historical  societies  and  national  museums,  to 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  I3I 

be  brought  forth  for  the  instruction  of  future 
generations. 

At  the  present  time  the  making  of  moving  pic- 
ture films,  both  negatives  and  positives,  is  alto- 
gether beyond  the  possibilities  of  the  ordinary 
photographer.  The  long  strips  of  film  for  mak- 
ing the  negatives  must  be  exposed  by  means  of 
cameras  of  special  construction  ; apparatus  nec- 
essarily high  priced  and  of  no  general  use  to  the 
possessor  because  of  its  being  designed  for  the 
specific  purpose  for  which  it  is  used. 

The  positives  which  are  used  in  the  exhibition 
machines,  are  printed  from  the  negatives  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  in  which  a lantern  slide 
is  produced,  except  that  instead  of  a printing 
frame  being  used  to  hold  the  negative  in  contact 
with  the  sensitive  film,  an  automatic  printing  ma- 
chine is  used.  The  great  length  of  the  strips  of 
film  render  developing  them  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner absolutely  impossible.  Hence,  to  accomplish 
development,  recourse  is  had  to  the  use  of  large 
drums,  which  revolve  in  troughs  containing  the 
necessary  developing  and  fixing  solutions. 

Around  these  drums  the  exposed  film  is  wound. 
The  drums  being  revolved,  the  film  is  brought 
in  contact  with  the  solutions  contained  in  the 
troughs  and  development  and  fixation  is  thus  ac- 
complished. A further  process  in  the  completion 
of  the  films  is  the  perforation  of  the  edges.  This 
is  accomplished  by  a perforating  machine  which 
punches  small  holes  at  regular  intervals  along 
both  edges,  in  which  the  teeth  of  the  sprocket 
wheels  of  the  projecting  machine  engage  while 
the  film  is  being  exhibited.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  completion  of  a moving  picture  film 
ready  to  be  used  in  the  projecting  machine  ne- 


132 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


cessitates  not  only  a very  high  degree  of  knowl- 
edge of  this  particular  work,  but  requires,  like- 
wise, apparatus  and  an  establishment  altogether 
beyond  the  possibilities  of  expenditure  of  the  or- 
dinary photographer.  Hence,  the  making  of  these 
films  is  confined  to  a very  few  well  equipped  con- 
cerns, with  whom  the  business  is  a regularly  es- 
tablished commercial  venture. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


DEVELOPMENT  AND  COMPLETION  OF 
THE  NEGATIVE. 

Equipment  and  Arrangement  of  the  Dark 
Room.— As  pointed  out  in  a previous  chapter, 
the  process  of  developing  the  negative  has  to 
be  carried  on  by  the  aid  of  the  light  from  a ruby 
lamp,  and  since  all  other  light  must  be  excluded 
the  room  which  is  devoted  to  this  work  is  usually 
termed  the  “dark  room.”  If  the  reader  is  for- 
tunate enough  to  possess  a spare  room  at  home, 
which  can  be  set  apart  solely  for  photographic 
operations,  his  path  of  progress  will  be  rendered 
considerably  more  comfortable  than  if  he  has 
to  develop  his  negatives  when  and  where  he  can. 
It  is  quite  a mistake  to  imagine  that  any  cup- 
board will  do  for  the  dark  room,  even  if  it  is 
big  enough  for  the  photographer  to  get  inside. 
Unless  the  work  can  be  done  comfortably,  it 
is  hardly  likely  to  be  satisfactory,  and  therefore 
it  is  much  the  best  policy  to  select  a room  where 
both  fresh  air  and  elbow  space  exist  in  plenty.  If 
the  amateur  has  a room  which  he  can  devote  en- 
tirely to  photography,  he  will  find  the  following 
items  of  furniture  and  fittings  useful : 

A table  on  which  to  do  the  developing,  though 
better  still  than  this  would  be  a specially-made 
developing  sink ; a cupboard  or  chest  of  drawers, 
in  which  to  keep  his  stock  of  plates,  papers  and 
various  pieces  of  apparatus ; and  a set  of  shelves 
fixed  on  the  wall,  close  to  the  developing  table 
or  sink,  on  which  should  be  placed  bottles  of  the 

133 


134 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


various  chemicals  and  solutions  required  for  de- 
velopment. If  gas  is  available,  the  burner 
bracket  should  be  fixed  just  over  the  develop- 
ing table ; and  if  the  convenience  of  a continu- 
ous water  supply  is  also  to  be  had  the  tap  should 
be  in  an  equally  handy  position.  If  a continu- 
ous water  supply  is  not  available  a small  tank 
fixed  to  the  wall  above  the  sink  may  be  made 
to  answer  the  purpose.  Failing  this,  a bucket 
or  large  jug  of  fresh  water  should  be  kept  at 
hand. 

If  a separate  photographic  room  is  not  at  the 
operator's  command,  the  next  best  in  order  of 
convenience  is  the  bathroom,  and  an  excellent 
substitute  it  makes.  In  either  case  daylight  may 
be  excluded  by  a light  structure  of  wood  of  such 
a size  as  to  just  fit  into  the  frame  of  the  window, 
and  covered  with  some  opaque  material.  I say 
opaque,  for  even  in  the  daytime  it  is  better  to 
develop  by  artificial  light,  as  daylight  is  continu- 
ally varying  in  intensity,  and  thus  makes  it  dif- 
ficult to  judge  the  density  of  the  negatives.  If, 
however,  the  reader  prefers  to  work  by  daylight 
he  can  secure  a fairly  safe  light  by  substituting 
for  the  opaque  material  two  thicknesses  of  col- 
ored fabric,  one  thickness  being  a ruby  color  and 
the  other  a deep  canary  or  orange.  If  this  plan 
be  adopted  the  screen  thus  made  should  be  £s 
little  exposed  to  sunlight  as  possible,  otherwise 
the  color  will  rapidly  deteriorate,  and  the  screen 
will  be  thereby  rendered  unsafe.  Such  a screen 
should  be  tested  from  time  to  time. 

Having  thus  prevented  the  admission  of  white 
light  through  the  window,  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  door,  and  any  stray  light  finding  its 
way  through  the  kevhole  or  crevices  should  be  . 
promptly  checked  by  brown  paper.  While,  how- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  1 35 

ever,  the  room  should  be  made  perfectly  light- 
tight, it  should  not  be  air  tight,  for  unless  the 
bad  air  is  permitted  to  escape  and  be  replaced 
by  pure  air  the  atmosphere  will  soon  become  op- 
pressive and  even  injurious. 

In  the  event  of  neither  of  the  above-mentioned 
rooms  being  available,  the  amateur  must  make 
the  best  of  the  accommodation  afforded  by  one 
of  the  ordinary  rooms  of  the  house.  In  such 
case,  of  course,  he  must  exercise  especial  care 
and  cleanliness  in  handling  his  various  solutions, 
so  as  not  to  damage  the  carpet  or  furniture. 

The  Choice  of  a Developer. — A “developer” 
may  be  defined  as  a chemical  solution  which, 
when  applied  to  a plate  which  has  been  suitably 
exposed  in  the  camera,  will  bring  out  or  make 
visible  the  image  produced  by  the  action  of  the 
light  on  the  silver  bromide  in  the  sensitive  emul- 
sion with  which  the  plate  is  covered.  That 
image  is  invisible  until  the  plate  has  been  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  the  developer,  so  that 
when  the  amateur  removes  his  exposed  plates 
from  the  plate  holder  they  will  appear  precisely 
the  same  as  when  first  placed  in  the  holder  ready 
for  exposure.  In  making  the  image  visible,  what 
the  developer  really  does  is  to  reduce  the  opaque 
metallic  silver — -those  parts  of  the  silver  bromide 
which  have  been  affected  by  the  light — and  to 
leave  unaltered  those  portions  upon  which  the 
light  has  not  acted.  When  the  plate  has  been 
developed,  and  the  latent  image  has  been  brought 
out,  it  has  to  be  “fixed”  before  it  can  safely  be 
allowed  to  make  an  appearance  in  daylight  again. 
Immediately  the  plate  has  been  developed  it  is 
subjected  to  a short  washing  in  clean  water  and 
is  then  immersed  in  a “fixing”  bath.  After  hav- 
ing been  “fixed”  the  plate  is  unaffected  in  any 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPH Y. 


I36 

further  way  by  exposure  to  light,  and  all  that 
remains  to  be  done  is  to  thoroughly  wash  it  and 
let  it  dry. 

But  this  explanation  is  carrying  me  ahead  of 
my  subject,  for  my  present  purpose  is  to  indicate 
the  nature  and  uses  of  the  various  developing 
agents  commonly  employed.  This  information 
may,  perhaps,  best  be  imparted  in  the  following 
form : 

Amidol. — This  developer  is  chiefly  used  for  two 
classes  of  work ; snap-shot  negatives  and  devel- 
oping papers.  It  is  very  energetic  in  its  action 
and  is  a good  developer  for  bringing  out  detail. 
When  used  for  bromide  papers  no  clearing  bath 
is  required. 

Eikonogen. — Very  suitable  for  snap-shots  and 
for  portrait  negatives.  It  is,  however,  but  slight- 
ly soluble  in  water,  and  is,  therefore,  usually* 
made  up  in  quantity.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  ob- 
tain full  density  with  this  developer  unless  very 
pure  crystals  are  employed  and  the  exposure 
of  the  plate  has  been  reasonably  correct.  If  com- 
bined with  a density-giving  developer,  such  as 
quinol,  good  results  may  be  secured. 

Ferrous  Oxalate. — This  is  a developer  which 
at  one  time  was  very  popular  for  negatives,  but 
of  late  has  been  largely  superseded  by  other 
substances.  To  secure  the  best  results  the  ex- 
posure of  the  negative  must  be  as  nearly  correct 
as  possible. 

Glycin. — This  is  a slow  developer,  giving  gray- 
black  images  free  from  fog.  It  is  much  used 
for  negatives  for  photo-mechanical  processes. 

Hydroquinone  or  Quinol. — This  developer  is  a 
great  favorite  among  amateurs  on  account  of  the 
cleanliness  and  ease  with  which  it  may  be  used. 
It  gives  blackish  negatives  and  may  be  used 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  1 37 

repeatedly  until  exhausted.  It  is  liable  to  pro- 
duce harsh  contrasts  with  an  insufficiency  of  de- 
tail, and  is  slower  in  operation  than  some  of  the 
other  developing  agents.  It  is  very  suitable  for 
bromide  papers. 

Metol. — Metol  is  one  of  the  most  energetic  of 
modern  developers  and  with  short  exposures  pro- 
duces negatives  of  extreme  softness.  A com- 
bination of  metol  and  hydroquinone  makes  a very 
satisfactory  developer. 

Pyrogallic  or  Pyro. — Of  all  developers  this  is 
the  one  which  is  most  widely  known  and  has 
the  longest  reputation.  By  suitably  modifying 
the  constituents  of  the  solution  employed,  pyro 
enables  excellent  negatives  to  be  obtained,  even 
in  cases  where  the  exposure  has  been  far  from 
correct,  and  in  the  hands  of  an  intelligent  user 
this  power  becomes  of  considerable  value  and 
importance.  Further  than  this,  it  is  fairly  rapid 
in  its  action,  any  amount  of  density  can  be  ob- 
tained, and  the  resultant  negatives  are  of  good 
printing  quality.  As  an  all-round  developer  for 
negatives  pyro  is  still  without  a superior. 

Rodinal. — Another  name  under  which  rodinal 
is  sometimes  sold  is  paramidophenol.  It  is 
chiefly  used  for  developing  hand  camera  nega- 
tives ; but,  while  it  brings  out  plenty  of  detail, 
there  is  occasionally  trouble  in  obtaining  satis- 
factory density.  It  is  also  a useful  developer 
for  bromide  papers. 

Agents. — The  chemical  substances  mentioned  in 
the  above  list  are  termed  “agents,”  and  are  not 
used  by  themselves  to  produce  development,  but 
are  mixed  in  certain  proportions  with  a substance 
termed  the  “alkali,”  and  with  a bromide  termed 
the  “restrainer.”  The  various  portions  of  agent, 
alkali  and  restrainer  are  dissolved  in  a suitable 


I38  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

amount  of  water  to  form  the  developing  solu- 
tion. Where  these  are  all  mixed  together  the 
developer  thus  formed  is  termed  a “one-solution” 
developer.  As,  however,  modifications  in  the 
relative  proportions  of  the  constituents  will  en- 
able the  operator  to  produce  corresponding 
modifications  in  the  character  of  the  resulting 
negative,  it  is  often  a convenience  to  have  two 
solutions  mixed  up,  one  containing  the  agent 
and  the  other  the  alkali.  Then,  by  taking  more 
of  the  one  solution  and  less  of  the  other,  or  vice 
versa,  the  development  of  the  negative  may  be 
had  more  fully  under  control.  Thus  the  rate  of 
development  may  be  hastened  or  retarded,  and 
the  contrasts  in  the  negative  accordingly  in- 
creased or  diminished.  At  the  present  moment 
the  reader  may  not  fully  understand  the  sig- 
nificance of  these  facts,  but  the  matter  will  be 
made  clearer  to  him  when  I come  to  deal  with 
the  actual  process  of  development.  From  the 
list  of  developing  agents  which  I have  just  given 
the  reader  will  see  that  he  has  a pretty  wide 
field  from  which  to  choose.  With  a developer, 
as  with  the  particular  brand  of  plate,  once  the 
selection  has  been  made  it  should  be  adhered 
to  and  its  capabilities  and  peculiarities  thorough- 
ly mastered.  Now,  different  makers  of  plates 
recommend  different  formulae  for  development, 
even  though  the  same  constituents  may  be  em- 
ployed in  each,  and  whatever  the  brand  of  plates 
selected,  while  the  general  facts  will  still  hold 
good,  the  particular  formulae  recommended  by 
the  makers  of  those  plates  should  be  adhered 
to  when  mixing  the  developer. 

How  to  Mix  the  Developer. — The  various 
chemicals  of  which  the  developers  are  com- 
posed are  usually  supplied  in  powders  or  crystals, 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


139 


and  they  should  be  stored  in  glass  bottles,  with 
close-fitting  corks.  India  rubber  corks  should  al- 
ways be  used  in  the  case  of  potash  or  soda.  Each 
bottle  should  be  carefully  and  accurately  labeled 
with  the  name  of  the  substance  contained  there- 
in, and  the  label  should  be  as  far  as  possible  in- 
destructible. That  is,  the  inscription  should  be 
either  sand-blasted  onto  the  glass  or  should  be 
written  on  a gummed  label,  which  should  be 
afterwards  sized  and  varnished.  No  chemical  or 
solution  should  be  placed  in  a bottle  which  has 
previously  contained  another  substance,  unless 
the  bottle  has  first  been  thoroughly  washed  out. 
On  no  account  should  any  solution  be  poured 
into  a labelless  bottle,  as  the  amateur  will  almost 
certainly  forget  just  what  the  composition  of 
the  solution  was,  and  when  that  is  the  case,  it  is 
useless  to  him.  If  space  is  limited,  developers 
may  be  purchased  in  the  form  of  powders.  These 
developing  powders  are  put  up  in  small  pack- 
ages, occupying  very  little  room,  and  when  a 
developing  solution  is  required  it  is  simply  neces- 
sary to  dissolve  one  or  more  powders  in  water, 
according  to  instructions. 

The  dissolving  of  solid  substances  in  water 
may  be  hastened  by  two  methods:  Firstly,  by 

crushing  the  substance  into  a powder  or  very 
small  pieces,  and  secondly,  by  using  hot  water 
instead  of  cold.  The  solution  should,  however, 
always  be  allowed  to  cool  before  it  is  used  to 
develop  with,  otherwise  the  film  of  the  plate  will 
be  injuriously  affected. 

How  to  Develop  a Negative. — I will  now  as- 
sume that  the  reader  has  exposed  a plate  in  the 
camera,  and  that  he  is  ready  to  make  his  first 
essay  at  development.  I will  further  assume 
he  has  prepared  the  solutions  required  according 


140 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


to  the  special  instructions  contained  in  the  pack- 
age of  dry  plates  that  he  has  used,  or  according 
to  some  one  of  the  formulae  given  in  Chapter 
XXIV.,  or  that  possibly  he  has  obtained  his  so- 
lution ready  prepared  from  a stock  dealer.  He 
must  then  proceed  as  follows : Light  the  ruby 
lamp  and  place  the  developing  dish  about  twelve 
inches  in  front,  or  at  such  a distance  as  you  can 
just  see  what  you  are  doing.  Next  open  the 
plate-holder,  take  out  the  exposed  plate,  and  after 
lightly  brushing  it  with  a flat  camel’s  hair  brush 
to  remove  any  particles  of  dust  place  it  film  side 
uppermost  in  the  developing  dish.  Then,  with 
a steady,  sweeping  motion,  pour  the  developer 
over  the  surface  of  the  plate.  It  is  absolutely 
essential  that  the  developer  should  cover  the 
whole  plate  and  that  no  air  bubbles  should  be 
allowed  to  remain,  otherwise  the  negative  will 
be  disfigured  by  markings  due  to  unequal  de- 
velopment. No  signs  of  the  picture  will  appear 
for  about  a minute  or  so,  but  the  dish  should  be 
gently  rocked  during  this  period  to  keep  the  de- 
veloper in  motion.  If  the  exposure  has  been 
about  correct  the  plate  will  then  gradually  darken 
in  places.  Now  watch  closely.  The  development 
of  an  exposed  dry  plate  is  a process  which  cannot 
fail  to  deeply  interest  the  most  careless  person. 
As  the  first  faint  outlines  appear,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  developer,  wonder  grows  into  amaze- 
ment at  the  change  going  on  Tinder  one’s  very 
eyes.  Outlines  of  familiar  objects  come  out,  as 
first  the  mast,  then  the  hull,  then  the  rigging  and 
the  cords  of  a great  vessel  comes  to  us  from  out 
the  dimness  of  a fog. 

In  a portrait  the  white  shirt  front  and 
collar  will  first  appear,  to  be  quickly  followed 
by  the  face.  The  reader  should  remember 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  I4I 

that  in  a negative  everything  is  reversed — 
that  is,  a white  collar  comes  out  black,  while  a 
black  hat  will  show  white,  or  rather  almost 
clear  glass,  in  the  finished  negative.  This  being 
clearly  borne  in  mind,  the  reader  will  be  better 
able  to  follow  the  progress  of  the  development. 
After  the  whitest  portions  of  a picture,  or  the 
"high  lights,”  as  they  are  termed,  have  appeared, 
they  will  be  followed  by  the  half-tones,  and  ulti- 
mately by  the  shadows.  If  the  picture  appears 
gradually,  in  these  successive  stages,  the  develop- 
ment should  be  allowed  to  continue  until  all  the 
details  are  fully  brought  out.  If  the  plate  is 
then  held  up  to  the  ruby  lamp  and  examined  the 
high  lights  should  be  nearly  opaque,  while  the 
deepest  shadows  should  be  transparent,  but 
should  clearly  show  the  details.  In  a landscape, 
for  example,  the  opaque  part  should  be  the  sky, 
or  the  side  of  a whitewashed  cottage,  while  the 
transparent  part  should  be  in  heavy  foliage  on 
trees  or  bushes,  but  the  leaves  and  branches  visi- 
ble in  the  negative ; i.  e.,  the  deepest  shadows 
should  not  appear  as  absolutely  unaltered  patches 
of  the  film.  The  edges  of  the  plate  which  have 
been  held  by  the  rebate  of  the  plate-holder  will, 
of  course,  remain  perfectly  white,  and  it  is  a 
fairly  safe  rule  to  continue  development  until 
every  part  of  the  plate  which  has  been  exposed 
turns  slightly  gray,  while  the  edges  remain 
clear  white. 

The  moment  these  edges  show  any  signs  of 
becoming  gray,  the  plate  should  be  removed 
from  the  developer  and  washed.  With  most 
plates  there  is  another  means  of  ascertaining 
if  development  has  been  carried  far  enough,  and 
this  is  to  examine  the  negative  from  the  glass 
side,  or  back,  by  reflected  light.  If  the  develop- 


142  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

ment  is  sufficient  the  high  lights  and  the  less 
deep  half-tones  will  be  visible  from  this  side. 
Until  the  development  has  been  completed  the 
dish  should  be  rocked  from  time  to  time  as  men- 
tioned. 

After  the  plate  has  been  developed  it  should 
be  washed  under  the  tap,  or  in  a dish  of  clean 
water,  and  should  then  be  immersed  in  a fixing- 
bath,  composed  as  follows: 

Hyposulphite  of  soda.  . 16  ozs.  or  20  parts 
Water  up  to 80  ozs.  or  100  parts 

Hyposulphite  of  soda  is  commonly  referred  to 
as  “hypo.” 

The  above  quantity  of  solution  will  serve  for 
fixing  a large  number  of  plates,  and  if  only  a 
small  quantity  is  required  for  a few  plates  it 
can  be  easily  mixed,  provided  the  same  propor- 
tions are  maintained,  viz.,  four  parts  of  water 
to  one  part  of  hypo. 

The  hypo  bath  does  not  take  very  long  to  pre- 
pare, and  may  be  mixed,  if  preferred,  just  before 
development  is  commenced.  The  plate  should 
be  placed  in  the  fixing  bath  and  left 
there  until  it  is  completely  fixed.  This  may  be 
readily  judged  by  examining  the  back  of  the 
negative  by  reflected  light.  If  any  of  the  un- 
altered silver  bromide  is  still  undissolved,  it  will 
appear  as  a creamy  white  patch,  and  until  the 
whole  of  this  has  been  dissolved  away  and  noth- 
ing but  the  picture  on  the  clear  glass  remains, 
the  fixing  process  should  be  continued. 

After  the  negative  has  been  fixed  it  should  be 
thoroughly  washed,  either  in  running  water  or 
in  several  changes,  the  period  required  to  elimi- 
nate all  the  hypo  being  about  one  hour,  provided 
a thorough  and  continual  change  of  the  water 
is  arranged  for. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  1 43 

When  washed  the  negative  may  be  allowed 
to  dry.  Heat  should  not  be  applied  to  effect  this 
quickly,  as  the  gelatine  will  be  in  great  danger 
of  becoming  melted.  The  negative  should  be 
placed  in  an  almost  upright  position  in  a dry, 
cool  place,  where  no  dust  is  likely  to  collect. 

How  to  Recognize  and  Correct  Under-  and 
Overexposure. — The  foregoing  description  of 
the  progress  and  development  was  based  on  the 
assumption  that  the  exposure  of  the  plate  in  the 
camera  had  been  fairly  correct.  It  is,  however, 
extremely  likely  that  the  beginner  will  for  some 
time,  at  any  rate,  make  numerous  mistakes  in 
judging  the  correct  exposure,  and  I will,  there- 
fore, now  proceed  to  explain  how  such  mistakes 
may  be  compensated  for  by  a modification  of  the 
development.  The  reader  will  remember  that  I 
said  the  high  lights  in  the  picture  would  first 
begin  to  appear  about  a minute  after  the  com- 
mencement of  the  development,  if  the  exposure 
had  been  approximately  correct.  We  will  now 
suppose,  however,  that  at  the  expiration  of  that 
time  no  indication  of  the  picture  appeared,  and 
that,  in  fact,  two  or  three  minutes  had  elapsed 
before  the  plate  first  began  to  darken.  If,  after 
this,  the  high  lights  and  half-tones  came  up 
quickly,  and  yet,  in  spite  of  a prolongation  of  de- 
velopment, no  detail  appeared  in  the  shadows, 
it  is  a pretty  sure  sign  that  the  plate  was  under- 
exposed. The  opposite  case  to  this,  viz.,  over- 
exposure, is  indicated  by  the  picture  appearing 
considerably  before  the  expiration  of  a minute, 
and,  instead  of  coming  out  regularly  and  gradu- 
ally, it  makes  its  full  appearance  in  a very  short 
space  of  time.  In  cases  of  gross  overexposure 
the  whole  picture  seems  to  flash  out  at  once, 
almost  directly  the  developer  is  poured  over  the 


144 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


surface,  and  the  film  appears  to  go  gray  and 
foggy.  Of  the  above  faults  underexposure  is 
the  more  serious,  as  in  many  cases  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  bring  detail  out  in  the  underexposed  parts, 
no  matter  how  the  development  may  be  modi- 
fied. With  care  all  but  very  extreme  cases  of 
overexposure  can  be  sufficiently  controlled  to 
enable  a satisfactory  negative  to  be  obtained. 

If  the  negative  appears  to  suffer  from  under- 
exposure, as  indicated  above,  the  following  pro- 
cedure should  be  adopted : 

Pour  the  developer  back  into  the  cup  or  mix- 
ing glass,  and  replace  it  in  the  developing  dish 
with  clean  water.  The  developer  must  then  be 
weakened  or  diluted  with  about  an  equal  bulk 
of  water.  Pour  off  the  water  from  the  dish  and 
continue  the  development  with  the  weakened 
developer.  The  developer  should  be  allowed  to 
act  until  the  high-lights  have  become  quite 
opaque,  and  probably  by  that  time  a good  deal 
of  the  details  in  the  shadows  will  have  appeared. 
I may  here  give  the  reader  a hint  as  to  alter- 
ing the  strength  or  proportions  of  the  developer 
in  use  in  the  developing  dish.  This  should  never 
be  done  by  adding  the  water  or  fresh  solution 
to  the  developer  while  it  is  in  the  dish,  as  it  is 
impossible  for  a thorough  mixture  to  take  place 
in  this  way,  and  unequal  or  patchy  development 
of  the  plate  will  result.  The  developer  should 
first  be  poured  off  into  the  mixing  glass,  and 
the  requisite  addition  made.  It  can  be  then 
returned  to  the  dish  with  comparative  safety. 

The  correction  of  overexposure  will  require 
more  prompt  attention  than  that  of  underex- 
posure, for  in  the  former  case  the  mischief  is 
soon  accomplished.  As  soon  as  there  is  an  indi- 
cation that  overexposure  is  the  fault,  the  de- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


145 


veloper  should  be  at  once  poured  back  into  the 
graduate  glass,  and  very  greatly  reduced  in 
strength  by  adding  water.  Also  put  in  a few 
drops  of  a strong  solution  of  bromide  of 
potassium.  The  development  can  then  be  con- 
tinued until  the  contrasts  appear  likely  to  be 
about  normal,  or  until  the  action  of  the  solution 
appears  to  be  less  vigorous. 

To  Intensify  a Negative. — The  reader  will 
sometimes  find  that  a negative,  after  develop- 
ment and  fixing,  appears  thin ; that  is,  there  is 
plenty  of  detail  and  graduation,  but  the  image 
is  not  sufficiently  opaque  to  yield  satisfactory 
prints.  This  may  be  due  to  one  of  several  causes. 
For  instance,  it  may  be  caused  by  overexposure ; 
by  removal  from  the  developer  before  sufficient 
density  was  obtained ; or  by  the  thinness  of  the 
emulsion  with  which  the  plate  was  coated.  A 
negative  of  this  kind  may  be  considerably  im- 
proved by  the  process  known  as  ‘‘Intensifica- 
tion. ” The  following  is  the  method  of  proced- 
ure : 

After  the  negative  has  been  fixed  it  must  be 
thoroughly  washed  and  then  placed  in  a strong 
alum  bath  for  about  ten  minutes.  After  a fur- 
ther washing  it  is  placed  in  the  intensifying  so- 
lution, made  as  follows : 

Bi-Chloride  of  mercury.^  oz.  or  5 parts 
Hydrochloric  acid.  . . .45  grains  or  1 part 
Water 10  ozs.  or  100  parts 

A note  of  warning  with  regard  to  bi-chloride 
of  mercury : This  is  a strong  poison  and  is  some- 
times known  as  corrosive  sublimate  or  mercuric 
chloride.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  into 
contact  with  any  cuts,  etc.,  on  the  hands  or 
fingers. 


146 


MODERN  PHOTOGRArHY. 


The  negative  should  be  kept  in  the  above  so- 
lution till  it  becomes  a grayish  white  all  over 
and  then  thoroughly  washed  and  placed  in  a sec- 
ond bath  composed  of : 

Liq.  ammonia  (U.  S.  P.) 1 oz 

Water  up  to 20  ozs 

When  the  action  of  this  bath  is  completed,  as 
may  be  noted  by  the  cessation  of  a visible  change 
in  the  color  of  the  negative,  the  latter  is  taken 
out  and  thoroughly  washed  and  dried. 

To  Reduce  a Negative. — In  contradistinction 
to  the  foregoing,  a .process  called  “reduction” 
may  be  necessitated,  if  the  negative  should  be 
so  dense  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  obtain  a print. 
This  is  usually  caused  by  the  development  hav- 
ing been  too  prolonged.  The  following  is  the 
method  of  obtaining  a reduction  of  this  excessive 
density : 

The  negative  must  be  thoroughly  washed  after 
fixing,  and  should  then  be  placed  in  a dish  and 
covered  with  a clean  solution  of  hypo.  A solu- 
tion of  potassium  ferricyanide  is  then  made,  as 
follows : 

Potassium  ferricyanide 1 oz 

Water  up  to 10  ozs 

Pour  off  the  hypo  from  the  dish  into  a measur- 
ing dish,  add  a few  drops  of  the  above  solution 
and  again  pour  over  the  plate.  Reduction  will 
at  once  commence  and  will  proceed  pretty  rapid- 
ly, the  rate  depending  upon  the  amount  of  fer- 
ricyanide added.  As  soon  as  the  negative  is 
nearly  reduced  enough  take  it  out  of  the  bath 
and  thoroughly  wash.  The  image  will  be  re- 
duced a little  more  during  washing. 

Drying  Negatives. — Negatives  should  be  dried 
as  rapidly  as  possible : this  is  most  conveniently 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  1 4 7 

done  by  having  a regular  negative-drying  rack. 
(See  Fig.  62.)  The  ideal  way  is  to  place  this 
rack  holding  negatives  three  or  four  feet  away 
from  an  electric  fan  in  motion;  where  this  is 
not  possible,  the  rack  of  negatives  can  be  placed 
in  the  best  draft  of  air  possible  in  the  house ; 
never  in  the  sun,  particularly  in  summer.  When 
the  negative  is  dried  too  slowly  in  a close,  warm 
room  it  will  be  of  a different  character  and  when 
dry  will  be  thickened  and  very  heavy  in  high 
lights;  this  is  caused  by  the  moisture  on  the  plate 


Fig.  62. 


being  heated  by  the  air  up  to  85  to  90  degrees 
Fahr.,  thereby  dissolving  some  of  the  minute 
sacs  of  gelatine  in  the  film,  permitting  several 
atoms  of  silver  to  come  together  and  form  one 
mass ; this  going  on  all  over  the  plate  makes 
what  is  called  a coarse-grained  negative. 

Varnishing  Negatives. — All  negatives  should 
be  varnished  as  a matter  of  protection.  It  is 
quite  permissible  to  take  prints  from  an  unvar- 
nished negative,  and,  indeed,  there  are  many 
workers  who  will  not  take  the  trouble  to  protect 
their  negatives  by  a coating  of  varnish.  As, 
however,  there  are  many  negatives  obtained 


148 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


which,  from  the  nature  of  the  subject,  it  is  im- 
possible to  replace,  I think  the  practice  of  var- 
nishing is  not  an  extravagant  precaution  to  take 
against  possible  injuries  from  stray  splashes  of 
liquids,  or  the  effects  of  a damp  atmosphere.  All 
photographic  dealers  supply  a clear  hard  varnish 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  method  of  its  appli- 
cation is  as  follows : 

First  warm  your  negative  by  gently  and  evenly 
applying  heat  until  it  feels  quite  hot  to  the 
hand.  Then  hold  the  negative  horizontally,  film 
side  upwards,  on  the  finger  tips,  and  pour  a pool 
of  varnish  in  the  center.  The  negative  should 
then  be  slightly  tilted,  first  one  way  and  then  the 
other,  until  the  varnish  has  traversed  every  por- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  film.  Then  tilt  the 
negative  up  at  a considerable  angle  and  drain 
off  the  surplus  varnish  into  the  bottle.  The 
negative  may  then  be  gently  dried  in  front  of  a 
fire  and  allowed  to  cool. 

Retouching  Negatives. — Retouching  means  im- 
proving the  negative  by  mechanical  methods, 
either  with  a lead  pencil  or  sable  brush.  Land- 
scape negatives  can  be  sometimes  improved,  es- 
pecially where  the  negative  is  thin  in  sky,  by 
smoking  the  glass  side  over  a candle  flame  or  by 
printing  through  a yellow  tissue  paper;  this  is 
not  necessary  in  well-balanced  negatives.  Por- 
trait negatives  can  very  often  be  improved  by 
retouching,  as  the  unretouched  negatives  show 
facial  defects  in  greater  prominence  than  they 
really  are.  This  is  done  by  using  a fine-pointed 
lead  pencil  on  the  surface  of  the  film  to  blot  out, 
modify  or  remove  them  and  the  deep  shadows, 
particularly  those  at  the  corners  of  the  mouth, 
crowsfeet,  freckles,  etc.  Retouching  is  a profes- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  I49 

sion  of  itself  and  to  become  proficient  in  the  same 
requires  an  instructor. 

Storing  Plate  Negatives. — When  the  amateur 
has  made  some  progress  in  the  practice  of  photog- 
raphy he  will  begin  to  accumulate  a number  of 
negatives  of  value  and  interest,  and  the  question 
will  arise  as  to  how  these  may  best  be  classi- 
fied and  kept.  A simple  and  inexpensive  method 
is  to  place  each  negative  inside  a plain  envel- 
ope, and  on  the  outside  of  this  inscribe  the  sub- 
ject and  the  circumstances  under  which  the 
picture  was  taken.  For  example,  one  inscription 
might  read  thus:  “Lake  steamer  entering  Chi- 
cago harbor.  June  25,  1902.  ’s  ‘ ’ plate. 

Stop  F-11.  Exposure,  one-thirtieth  sec.”  De- 
tails such  as  these  often  prove  of  service  for  fu- 
ture reference.  The  negatives  thus  encased  may 
be  stored  in  ordinary  cardboard  boxes,  and  each 
box  labeled  outside  with  the  nature  of  its  con- 
tents, thus:  “Summer  Holiday,  1902.  Chicago 
and  neighborhood.”  Some  readers  may  prefer 
to  buy  negative  boxes  ready  made,  and  these 
can  be  obtained  at  a comparatively  small  cost. 
They  are  provided  with  grooves  into  which  the 
negatives  drop,  and  each  box  contains  space 
for  from  twenty-five  to  one  hundred  plates.  If 
these  are  numbered  and  a list  of  the  subjects 
pasted  inside  the  box  lid  any  desired  negative 
can  quickly  be  found. 

DEFECTS  IN  DRY-PLATE  NEGATIVES 
AND  THEIR  REMEDIES. 

Flat  Negatives. — While  flat  negatives  are  fre- 
quently due  to  flat  lighting  of  the  subject,  they 
are  sometimes  caused  by  too  warm  developer. 
Developer  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  over  70 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


150 

degrees  Fal  r.  An  unsuitable  developing  light 
will  destroy  the  brightness  of  the  shadows,  caus- 
ing the  negative  to  appear  flat. 

Softening  of  Film. — Keep  the  developer  at 
about  70  degrees  Fahr.  and  no  frilling  in  hot 
weather  will  result.  Softening  of  the  film  can  be 
avoided,  however,  even  though  the  conditions  of 
temperature  are  not  perfect.  After  development 
rinse  and  place  the  negative  in  a saturated  alum 
bath  for  five  minutes.  After  fixing  in  a plain 
fixing  bath  place  again  in  the  alum  solution  for 
a few  minutes ; and  the  washing  and  drying, 
though  warm,  will  not  injure  the  film. 

Weakness  of  Image  is  often  the  result  of  too 
cold  development,  but  is  generally  due  to  under- 
development, or  developer  too  weak  in  pyro,  or 
whatever  agent  is  used. 

Slowness  of  Development  is  caused  by  a cold 
developing  room,  smoky  lens,  dirty  skylight,  or 
decomposed  developer.  Hydroquinone  is  a slow 
developer,  especially  in  cold  weather. 

Too  Much  Contrast  is  generally  caused  by  too 
contrasty  lighting  of  subject.  Underexposure, 
the  use  of  a restrainer  in  developer,  or  a devel- 
oper too  weak  in  sal  soda  may  cause  the  same 
trouble. 

Fog  and  Its  Causes. — Fog  on  a negative  may  . 
result  from  several  causes.  It  may  be  caused 
by  defective  light  from  the  dark  room  lamp ; by  a 
leaky  plate-holder  allowing  daylight  access  to 
the  plate ; by  gross  overexposure ; or  from  de- 
fective emulsion  on  the  plate.  To  protect  plates 
as  much  as  possible  from  the  first  of  the  above 
causes  it  is  a good  plan  to  cover  the  developing 
dish  over  during  the  greater  part  of  the  time 
development  is  proceeding,  only  removing  the 
cover  for  the  purpose  of  examination,  or  of  alter- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


151 

ing  the  developer.  To  avoid  fog  from  the  sec- 
ond cause,  plate-holders  containing  plates  should 
be  kept  out  of  sunlight,  or  direct  daylight,  as 
much  as  possible,  and  also  should  be  covered 
round  by  the  focusing  cloth,  while  the  slide  is 
drawn  during  exposure.  A kind  of  fog  known  as 
“green  fog”  sometimes  occurs,  and  usually  this 
may  be  traced  to  either  using  too  much  alkali 
in  the  composition  of  the  developer  or  to  the 
action  of  the  impure  atmosphere  in  which  the 
plates  may  have  been  stored.  A remedy  for 
green  fog  is  the  application  of  the  reducer,  as 
described  above,  and  a subsequent  intensifica- 
tion of  the  negative. 

Spots. — Numerous  round  and  very  small  spots 
are  generally  due  to  rinsing  the  plate  before  de- 
veloping. Carefully  avoid  this.  Large,  round 
spots,  but  less  numerous,  are  caused  usually  by 
using  water  containing  vegetable  matter,  produc- 
ing bubbles  in  the  developer.  Melted  ice,  dis- 
tilled or  well  water  only  should  be  used.  Angu- 
lar spots  are  due  to  dust  on  the  plate  at  the  time 
of  exposure.  Plates  should  be  dusted  with  a 
camel’s  hair  brush  before  development  and  the 
plate-holder  and  camera  kept  scrupulously  clean. 
The  dusting  may  electrify  the  plate  if  done  too 
vigorously.  Twice  drawn  gently  over  the  plate 
is  sufficient.  Glass  splinters  are  often  the  cause 
of  spots  when  a number  of  plates  are  developed 
together  and  the  tray  shaken  in  order  to  more 
rapidly  cover  the  plates  with  developer.  Tri- 
angular transparent  spots  are  caused  by  using  a 
developer  on  which  a scum  has  formed.  It 
should  not  be  used  without  filtering.  The  scum 
forms  rapidly  if  the  room  is  warm  and  the  water 
used  contains  organic  matter.  Opaque  spots  and 
lines  are  caused  by  allowing  pyro,  hypo,  or  sal 


152 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


soda  to  get  on  the  dusting  brush.  The  dark 
room  should  be  kept  absolutely  clean ; and  care- 
fully avoid  spilling  hypo  or  other  solutions,  for 
after  drying  the  chemicals  will  float  about  in  the 
air  and  cause  endless  trouble. 

Granularity  of  Negative. — This  trouble  usually 
appears  in  warm  weather,  and  is  due  to  two 
causes — insufficient  mixing  of  the  developer,  es- 
pecially if  too  strong  and  too  warm.  Too  much 
alum  in  the  fixing  bath  may  also  cause  granular 
negatives.  Do  not  use  a muddy  fixing  bath. 
Filter  it. 

Opaque  Finger  Marks. — Finger  marks  are  gen- 
erally caused  by  placing  the  exposed  plates  all 
film  down  in  a box,  while  awaiting  development. 
After  exposure  and  before  development  always 
place  the  plates  film  to  film,  or  keep  them  entirely 
separate  in  a grooved  box. 

Pinholes. — Pins  may  not  appear  to  have  a 
very  direct  connection  with  photography,  but  I 
imagine  that  the  beginner  will  not  have  produced 
very  many  negatives  before  he  discovers  the  na- 
ture of  “pinholes.”  These  are  tiny  transparent 
spots  which  make  their  appearance  on  tke  film 
during  the  development  and  fixing  of  the  nega- 
tive. These  transparent  spots,  of  course,  allow 
light  to  pass  through  freely,  and,  therefore,  when 
a print  is  taken  from  the  negative  every  pin- 
hole is  represented  by  a little  dark  spot  on  the 
print.  The  chief  cause  of  pinholes  is  dust  on  the 
plate  during  exposure,  and  the  surest  way  to 
prevent  their  appearance  is  to  dust  out  the  plate- 
holders  every  time  plates  are  to  be  put  in,  and 
also  to  lightly  dust  the  surface  of  the  plates  them- 
selves before  putting  them  in  the  holders.  This 
operation  is  best  performed  with  a broad,  flat 
camel’s  hair  brush,  which  should  be  perfectly 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


T53 


clean  and  dry.  If  pinholes  do  occur  in  a nega- 
tive in  spite  of  all  precautions,  the  best  way  to 
nullify  their  ill  effects  is  to  touch  or  spot  them 
out  by  carefully  working  over  them  with  a lead 
pencil.  Transparent  spots  of  a larger  kind  than 
pinholes  may  be  caused  by  the  presence  of  air 
bubbles  in  the  developer,  and  as  these  are  more 
difficult  to  remedy  than  the  pinholes  great  care 
should  be  taken  when  developing  to  see  that  no 
such  air  bubbles  are  allowed  to  exist. 

Halation. — Halation  or  spreading  of  the  high 
lights  usually  occurs  in  negatives  of  subjects  in 
which  high  lights  and  very  deep  shadows  occur, 
as,  for  instance,  in  an  interior  of  a building,  where 
a strongly-lighted  window  has  to  be  included  on 
the  same  plate  as  a dimly-lighted  portion  of  the 
room.  For  the  shadows  a long  exposure  must 
be  given,  and  this  exposure,  being  far  in  excess 
of  that  required  for  the  window,  the  light  from 
the  latter  seems  to  spread  and  form  a mist  or 
halo  round  that  portion  of  the  plate.  This  misty 
appearance  is  caused  by  the  reflection  of  some 
of  the  high  light  which  has  managed  to  pass 
through  the  film  to  the  back  of  the  plate.  There 
are  two  ways  out  of  the  difficulty;  one  is  to  use 
specially  coated  plates — non-halation  plates — and 
the  other  to  “back”  ordinary  plates.  To  “back” 
a plate  means  to  coat  the  glass  side  of  the  plate 
with  some  substance  which  will  absorb  any  light 
which  falls  upon  it,  and  thus  prevent  it  being  re- 
flected back  again.  The  following  is  a useful 
formula  for  preparing  this  “backing”  mixture: 

Burnt  sienna 2 ozs 

Caramel  ...ioz 

Gum  mucilage I oz 

Grind  the  above  constituents  together  thor- 
oughly and  then  add  2 ozs.  of  methylated  spirit. 


154 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


This  mixture  may  be  easily  applied  to  the  back 
of  the  plate  with  a soft  brush  or  a piece  of  cotton 
wool.  It  can  be  readily  wiped  off  again,  prior 
to  development.  The  operation  of  backing  the 
plates  must,  of  course,  be  performed  by  the  aid 
of  the  ruby  lamp  in  the  dark  room. 

TO  DEVELOP  CARTRIDGE  FILMS. 

Film,  to  avoid  curling,  must  always  be  devel- 
oped face  down,  otherwise  it  is  handled  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  plates,  except,  of  course,  that 
it  must  be  cut  up  before  printing. 

For  all  cartridge  rolls  smaller  than  4x5  devel- 
opment should  be  started  in  the  strip,  as  this 
method  removes  the  possibility  of  cutting 
through  the  negatives.  The  same  method  may 
be  used  with  the  larger  sizes,  but  owing  to  their 
length  is,  perhaps,  not  quite  so  convenient  as  to 
cut  up  the  film  before  development  is  started. 
Having  shut  out  all  extraneous  light  from  the 
dark  room  and  lighted  the  dark  room  lamp, 

a.  Unroll  the  film  and  detach  the  entire  strip 
from  the  black  paper. 

b.  Pass  the  film  through  a tray  of  clean  cold 
water  as  shown  in  Fig.  63,  holding  one  end  in 
each  hand.  Pass  through  the  water  several  times, 
that  there  may  be  no  bubbles  remaining  on  the 
film.  When  it  is  thoroughly  wet,  with  no  air 
bubbles,  place  the  strip  of  film  in  a tray  of  water, 
immersing  it  fully  but  not  folding  tightly  so  as 
to  crack  it. 

c.  Prepare  the  developer  as  described  in  chap- 
ter XXIV. 

d.  Now  pass  the  film  through  the  developer  in 
the  same  manner  as  described  for  wetting  it  and 
shown  in  Fig.  63.  Keep  it  constantly  in  motion. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


155 


and  in  about  one  minute  the  high  lights  will  be- 
gin to  darken  and  you  will  readily  be  able  to  dis- 
tinguish the  unexposed  sections  between  the 
negatives. 

e.  With  a pair  of  shears  cut  the  negatives  apart 
and  place  them  face  down  in  the  tray  of  clear 
water. 

The  negatives  may  now  be  immersed  in  the 
developer  one  section  at  a time,  and  developed 


and  fixed  according  to  instructions  given  for  dry 
plates  and  sheet  film. 

This  method  must  always  be  followed  with  the 
cartridge  roll  holder  rolls,  but  they  may  first  be 
cut  in  two  at  point  where  perforations  occur  in 
the  middle  of  strip. 

Another  Way. — 1.  Unroll  the  film  and  cut  the 
exposures  apart  as  shown  in  Fig.  64.  In  unroll- 
ing the  film  preparatory  to  development  care 


156  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

must  be  taken  that  the  end  be  not  allowed  to 
roll  over  the  paper.  The  exposures  should  be 
cut  apart  with  the  paper  on  top.  Fig.  65  shows 
a cartridge  unrolled  with  the  film  on  top.  To 
correct  this  simply  turn  back  the  film  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted  lines,  thus  bringing  the  film 
under  the  paper. 

2.  Fill  a tray  nearly  full  of  water,  and  put 
into  it  the  exposures,  one  by  one,  face  down ; 


put  them  in  edgewise,  to  avoid  air  bells,  and  im- 
merse them  fully.  Cover  the  tray  with  a bit  of 
brown  paper  to  keep  out  the  light  from  the 
lamp. 

3.  Prepare  a developer  according  to  instruc- 
tions in  chapter  XXIV. 

4.  Take  one  of  the  exposures  from  the  water 
and  immerse  it  face  down  in  a second  tray.  Rock 
it  back  and  forth  to  prevent  streaks  and  air  bub- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


157 


bles;  in  about  one  minute  the  film  will  begin  to 
darken  in  spots,  representing  the  lights  of  the 
picture,  and  in  about  two  minutes  the  operator 
will  be  able  to  distinguish  objects  in  the  picture. 


Incorrect  Method. 


Fig.  65. 


The  developer  should  be  allowed  to  act  5 to  10 
minutes.  The  progress  of  the  development  may 
be  watched  by  holding  the  negative,  from  time 
to  time,  up  to  the  lamp.  (See  Fig.  66.) 


5.  Transfer  the  developed  film  to  a third  tray 
and  rinse  two  or  three  times  with  water,  leaving 
it  to  soak  while  the  next  film  is  being  developed. 
Only  one  negative  should  be  developed  at  a time 
until  the  operator  becomes  expert ; then  he  can 


158  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

manage  three  or  four  in  the  tray  at  one  time  and 
the  developer  will  answer  for  a dozen  films  be- 
fore being  exhausted.  As  each  successive  nega- 
tive is  developed  it  should  be  put,  with  the  pre- 
ceding negatives,  in  the  washing  tray  and  the 
water  changed  twice  to  prevent  the  developer  re- 
maining in  the  films  from  staining  them. 

6.  Put  two  tablespoonfuls  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda  into  a fourth  tray,  fill  two-thirds  full  of 
water,  and  stir  until  dissolved.  This  is  called  the 
fixing  bath. 

7.  Immerse  the  negatives  one  by  one  in  the 
fixing  bath  until  they  are  entirely  clear  of  white 
spots  and  are  transparent  instead  of  milky  by 
transmitted  light.  This  will  require  about  10 
minutes. 

8.  The  red  or  yellow  glass  can  be  removed 
from  the  lamp  as  soon  as  all  the  exposures  have 
been  fixed. 

9.  Pour  off  the  fixing  solution  into  the  slop 
bucket  and  fill  the  tray  with  clear,  cold  water ; 
repeat  this  at  intervals  of  five  minutes,  five  or 
six  times,  keeping  the  negatives  in  motion  or 
transferring  them  back  and  forth  to  tray  No. 
3,  one  by  one,  to  ensure  the  water  acting  evenly 
upon  them.  The  fixing  solution  must  only  be 
used  in  tray  No.  4,  and  the  negatives,  after  fixing, 
must  not  be  put  in  either  No.  1 or  No.  2 trays. 
Neither  must  any  of  the  fixing  solution  be  al- 
lowed to  touch  the  films  through  the  agency  of 
the  fingers  or  otherwise,  until  they  are  ready  to 
go  into  the  fixing  bath,  otherwise  they  will  be 
spotted  or  blackened  so  as  to  be  useless. 

10.  When  the  negatives  are  thoroughly  washed 
put  one-half  ounce  of  glycerine  into  one  pint 
of  water  (four  portions  measured  with  the  grad- 
uate glass),  stir  well  and  soak  the  negatives  in 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


159 


the  solution  for  5 minutes ; then  remove  them 
and  wipe  off  the  surplus  moisture  with  a soft, 
damp  cloth,  and  pin  them  by  the  four  corners 
face  up  to  a Hat  surface  to  dry.  The  glycerine 
solution  may  be  used  repeatedly.  The  trays  and 
measuring  glass  should  now  be  rinsed  out  and 
set  away  to  drain  and  dry.  When  the  negatives 
are  dry  they  are  ready  for  printing. 

Defective  Negatives. — By  following  closely  the 
foregoing  directions  the  novice  can  make  seventy- 
five  per  cent  or  upwards  of  good  negatives.  Some- 
times, however,  the  directions  are  not  followed 
and  failures  result.  In  such  cases  the  instruc- 
tions given  for  the  correction  of  faults  in  dry 
plate  negatives  may  safely  be  followed  to  correct 
like  faults  in  film  negatives. 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

Constantly  changing  conditions  of  light  and 
temperature  may  make  it  necessary  at  times  to 
change  the  proportions  of  the  different  chemicals 
given  in  developing  formulas.  We  therefore 
give  the  effect  of  each  ingredient  on  the  plate: 

Pyro  is  the  agent  that  gives  strength. 

Sulphite  of  soda  preserves  the  pyro  and  pre- 
vents the  negative  from  staining  yellow. 

Sal  soda  gives  detail  by  softening  and  open- 
ing the  pores  of  the  film,  causing  the  pyro  to 
penetrate  and  act  more  vigorously. 

If  pyro  alone  were  used  the  development  would 
be  very  slow  and  decomposition  of  the  pyro 
and  stain  of  the  negative,  due  to  the  absence 
of  the  sulphite,  would  prevent  full  development 
of  the  details. 

The  addition  of  sulphite  of  soda  alone  would 
simply  enable  the  development  to  be  continued 


i6o 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


to  a greater  extent  without  stain,  but  would  give 
a contrasty  negative,  wanting  in  detail. 

Pyro,  sulphite  of  soda  and  sal  soda,  in  the 
proper  proportions,  the  negative  correctly  timed, 
and  the  temperature  of  room  from  70  to  7 5 de- 
grees Fahr.  should  give  you  a good  negative  in 
four  minutes’  development.  If  in  that  time  your 
negative  is  too  strong  and  wanting  in  detail  it 
is  a proof  that,  under  your  condition  of  light,  you 
have  used  too  much  pyro — -try  25  per  cent  less. 
If,  however,  the  high  lights  are  not  too  strong  and 
the  detail  is  wanting,  the  exposure  was  too  short. 
This  also  might  be  overcome  by  a timely  addi- 
tional of  sal  soda  at  the  early  part  of  the  develop- 
ment. Again,  if  at  the  end  of  four  minutes  your 
negative  appears  all  over  nearly  alike  (weak  and 
too  much  detail),  then  it  is  overtimed;  or,  if 
the  film  appears  soft,  too  much  sal  soda  has  been 
used. 

If  the  development  has  continued  six,  eight 
or  ten  minutes,  and  the  result  is  a flat,  weak  neg- 
ative, either  your  developer  is  too  weak  in  all  its 
ingredients  or  the  chemicals  are  impure,  or,  per- 
haps, the  room  is  too  cold. 

Too  much  pyro  gives  contrast  with  proper 
time  of  development. 

Too  little  pyro  gives  a weak  negative  with 
longer  development. 

Too  much  sal  soda  clogs  up  the  negative  with 
quick  development. 

Too  little  sal  soda  causes  contrast  and  slow 
development. 

GENERAL  INFORMATION. 

Color  of  Negative. — Gray  negatives  make  weak 
prints  and  are  the  result  of  too  much  sulphite 
of  soda  in  the  developer. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


161 


Blue-black  and  grayish-black  negatives  are 
quite  pleasing  to  the  eye,  but  do  not  give  the  best 
prints,  as  the  delicate  definition  in  the  negative 
becomes  a blank  shadow  in  the  print,  thus  giving 
a contrasty  appearance  not  noticeable  in  the  nega- 
tive. 

Greenish  brown  or  yellowish  black  are  the 
most  desirable  colors  in  the  negative.  From  a 
negative  of  either  of  these  colors-  you  get  in  the 
print  all  you  see  in  the  negative,  and  the  defini- 
tion will  print  out  clear  and  bold.  With  these 
colors,  however,  the  negative  should  not  be  made 
so  strong.  Precautions  must  be  taken  to  use 
water  free  from  organic  and  other  injurious  mat- 
ter (see  article  on  water),  and  also  to  use  neutral 
sulphite  of  soda  or  some  in  which  the  alkali  has 
been  neutralized  (see  sulphite  soda).  If  the  nega- 
tive should  develop  too  blue  or  gray  use  less 
sulphite.  Too  much  sulphite  gives  gray;  too  lit- 
tle gives  yellow. 

Water. — If  distilled  water  only  was  used  in 
making  solutions  of  developer,  half  the  troubles 
in  development  would  be  avoided.  Distilled 
water  is  oftentimes  not  easily  procurable,  and 
so  the  water  at  hand  must  be  used.  If  river 
water  is  taken  it  should  be  boiled,  cooled  and 
filtered  before  mixing,  as  it  generally  contains 
much  vegetable  and  other  organic  matter.  Well 
water  that  is  free  from  iron  and  sulphur  and  not 
too  alkaline  may  be  used  without  boiling.  If  it 
contains  any  of  these  it  should  be  boiled  and 
filtered.  Melted  ice  is  good,  but  should  be  fil- 
tered. 

Sulphite  of  Soda. — Keep  in  a cool,  dry  place 
and  in  a well-corked  bottle.  If  kept  in  a warm 
place  the  crystals  melt  and  run  together,  and  if 
exposed  to  the  air  the  water  of  crystalization 


1 6 2 MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

evaporates,  leaving  a white  powder  ; it  is  then  un- 
fit for  use,  being  changed  into  a sulphate  through 
this  contact  with  air.  Owing  to  the  many  brands 
of  sulphite  of  soda  on  the  market  and  their 
various  degrees  of  alkalinity,  it  is  necessary  to 
test  it  before  using  as  directed  by  our  formulas. 
Dissolve  4 ounces  of  sulphite  of  soda  in  16  ounces 
of  water  and  then  add  20  drops  of  sulphuric  acid. 
If  this  solution  turns  red  litmus  paper  blue  the 
sulphite  of  soda  is  too  alkaline.  To  neutralize  the 
alkali  set  aside  5 ounces  of  the  solution  and  to 
the  remainder  add  sulphuric  acid  (C.  P.)  until 
the  blue  litmus  paper  turns  slightly  red.  It  may 
be  necessary  to  add  100  drops,  more  or  less.  Then 
add  the  5 ounces  set  aside  and  the  solution  is 
ready  for  use. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


PRINTING,  TONING,  MOUNTING  AND 
FINISHING  OF  MISCELLANEOUS 
PAPERS— VIGNETTING. 

The  novice  in  the  mysteries  of  photography  has 
now  been  carried  in  imagination  through  ail  the 
operations  necessary  in  the  making  of  the  nega- 
tive. He  is  the  possessor  of  several  first-class 
but  imaginary  negatives — pictures  in  which  all 
those  portions  which  should  be  white  are  black 
and  those  which  should  be  black  are  represented 
by  clear  glass.  He  will  recognize  that  this  is  mere- 
ly a means  to  an  end,  and  that  the  way  to  produce 
a positive  picture  from  a negative  is  to  place  a 
sensitive  surface  in  contact  with  it,  and  to  expose 
to  the  action  of  light  so  that  the  rays  passing 
through  all  those  portions  of  the  negative  which 
are  transparent  will  turn  the  sensitive  surface 
black  in  those  places,  while  the  dark  parts  of  the 
negative  will  protect  it  from  the  darkening  in- 
fluence, and  so  form  a print  which  is  positive — 
which  has  its  lights  and  shades  in  the  correct 
relation  to  one  another.  The  process  by  which 
this  result  is  obtained  is  known  as  Photographic 
Printing,  and  the  resultant  positives,  made  on 
sensitized  or  printing  papers,  are  called  prints. 

Until  quite  recently  Albumen  Paper  was  used 
almost  exclusively  by  the  photographer,  but  while 
this  paper  yields  most  excellent  and  permanent 
results,  it  is  extremely  tedious  and  troublesome 
in  manipulation,  and  of  late  years  the  field  which 
it  held  so  long  has  been  almost  entirely  pre- 
empted by  the  ready  prepared  products. 

163 


164  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

These  prepared  papers  are  of  niany  kinds,  and 
are  generally  known  as  Emulsion  or  Aristotype 
papers.  The  word  Aristotype,  however,  covers  a 
very  broad  field,  as  nearly  all  the  products  are 
made  after  different  formulae  and  each  brand  has 
little  peculiarities  of  its  own  that  require  special 
treatment  in  manipulation.  For  this  reason  it  is 
impossible  to  outline  a method  of  operation  that 
will  exactly  suit  all  kinds,  and  the  instructions 
herewith  given  are  but  general. 

These  various  papers  are  known  generally  as 
Collodion,  Gelatine,  Bromide,  Ferro-Prussiate, 
etc.  They  are  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
known  as  Printing-Out  papers  and  Developing 
papers.  From  the  large  number  of  brands  on 
the  market  it  is  possible  to  obtain  almost  any 
grade  or  texture  desired,  such  as  smooth  or 
glossy  surface,  mat  surface,  etc. 

The  various  manufacturers  enclose  with  each 
package  of  their  product  specific  instructions  for 
manipulation,  and  the  amateur  will  do  well  to 
follow  same  closely. 

By  Printing-Out  papers  is  meant  those  kinds 
on  which  all  details  of  the  negative  are  printed 
fully  out,  the  paper  afterward  being  subjected  to 
the  toning  and  fixing  processes  presently  de- 
scribed. 

Developing  papers  are  those  with  which  the 
details  of  the  negative,  instead  of  being  printed 
out,  as  with  printing-out  papers,  are  exposed  in 
contact  with  a negative  and  after  exposure  are 
developed  and  fixed  in  a manner  very  similar  to 
that  in  which  a negative  is  produced.  Platino- 
type  and  kindred  papers  partake  of  the  nature  of 
both  Printing-Out  and  strictly  Developing  pa- 
pers, as  in  their  use  they  are  printed  out  to  a 
dim  outline  and  afterward  developed.  Develop- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  165 

in g papers  are  many  times  quicker  than  any 
Printing-Out  paper.  Those  who  have  but  little 
time  in  daylight  for  photographic  work,  instead 
of  spending  hours  in  printing,  washing,  toning, 
etc.,  can  in  a very  few  moments  make  all  their 
prints  by  exposure  to  any  artificial  light,  and  in 
an  equally  short  time  develop  and  finish  them, 
thus  leaving  all  the  sunshiny  hours  for  other  pur- 
suits. 

Of  the  many  papers  offered  probably  the  most 
desirable,  for  the  beginner  at  any  rate,  is  a Gela- 
tino-Chloride  (chloride  of  silver  in  an  emulsion  of 
gelatine)  printing-out  paper.  In  the  negative  we 
have  learned  that  tfie  image  is  latent  until 
brought  out  by  chemical  action.  In  the  printing- 
out  paper  the  image  “prints-out”  at  once.  Before 
it  is  toned  and  fixed  it  is  in  the  same  condition 
as  a proof  received  from  the  photographer.  The 
chemical  action  clears  the  high  lights  and  shad- 
ows, gives  the  proper  tone  and  ‘‘fixes”  the  print, 
i.  e.,  makes  it  permanent. 

The  processes  of  toning  and  fixing  may  be 
combined  in  one  bath  or  may  be  done  separately. 
For  convenience  the  combined  bath  can  be  used, 
but  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  overwork 
the  bath.  Toning  with  an  overworked  bath  will 
not  yield  permanent  results  and  no  attempt  to 
economize  by  overworking  the  toning  bath 
should  be  made,  as  disappointment  will  be  the 
inevitable  result. 

Printing. — In  order  to  hold  the  paper  in  contact 
with  the  negative  during  the  operation  of  print- 
ing, a special  frame  is  employed,  with  a hinged 
back  and  springs  to  hold  it  down,thisbeingknown 
as  a printing  frame.  The  back  is  hinged  so  that 
while  one  half  of  the  print  in  progress  is  firmly 
held  by  one  spring  in  its  position  behind  the 


1 66  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

negative,  the  other  half  can  be  turned  back  by 
the  printer  in  order  to  see  what  progress  has 
been  made,  with  the  full  assurance  that  it  will 
drop  back  exactly  into  position  for  further  ex- 
posure, if  that  should  be  necessary. 

Though  printing-out  paper  is  sensitive  to  the 
action  of  the  light,  it  is  not  so  to  anything  like  the 
same  degree  that  a photographic  plate  or  film 
or  developing  paper  is.  For  instance,  gas  light 
has  practically  no  effect  whatever  upon  it,  and 
all  the  operations  of  placing  it  in  the  printing 
frames  and  so  on  can  be  conducted  in  weak  day- 
light with  impunity  instead  of  in  the  dark  room. 

To  make  a print,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  re- 
move the  back  from  the  printing  frame  by  shift- 
ing aside  the  two  pressure  springs  and  lifting  it 
out,  when,  the  frame  being  laid  face  downwards 
on  a table,  the  negative  to  be  printed  is  placed 
in  it,  with  the  film  side  uppermost.  Then  a piece 
of  sensitized  paper  is  placed  in  position  on  the 
negative,  with  its  shiny  side  downward,  so  that 
the  two  films  are  in  contact  with  one  another,  the 
back  is  replaced,  the  springs  brought  to  bear 
upon  it  and  the  whole  placed  in  some  position 
where  plenty  of  light  will  fall  upon  it.  On  an 
ordinary  bright  summer  day  printing  frames 
placed  on  the  window  sill  on  that  side  of  the 
house  on  which  the  sun  is  not  shining  will,  with 
negatives  of  average  density,  yield  prints  of  good 
quality  at  a fair  rate  of  printing.  Of  course,  the 
amount  of  exposure  which  a given  print  will  re- 
quire depends  not  only  upon  the  quality  and 
brilliancy  of  the  light,  but  also  very  considerably 
upon  the  density  and  color  of  the  negative  under 
which  it  is  exposed.  Moreover,  the  speed  at 
which  a print  is  made  affects  its  ultimate  quality 
to  a marked  extent,  and  a long  exposure  in  a 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


167 


poor  light,  tending  to  brilliancy  in  the  resultant 
print,  will  give  a more  plucky  picture,  with 
higher  contrasts,  from  the  same  negative  than 
one  in  which  the  exposure  has  been  a short  one 
to  a brilliant  light.  Extra  brilliancy  is  not  al- 
ways desirable,  as,  for  instance,  when  the  con- 
trasts in  the  negative  are  already  as  high  as  is 
at  all  necessary,  and  in  this  case  a short  exposure 
to  a very*  bright  light — even  to  direct  sun- 
light, in  extreme  cases — will  give  the  best  re- 
sults. On  the  other  hand,  when  the  negative  is 
unduly  thin  and  weak,  as  when  it  has  been  over- 
exposed, a brighter  plate  than  would  normally 
result  may  be  obtained  by  slow  printing  in  a 
very  weak  light,  or  by  allowing  the  light  to  filter 
through  a piece  of  tissue  paper  placed  over  the 
printing  frame. 

Prints  upon  printing-out  papers  should  always 
be  more  deeply  printed  than  it  is  desired  that 
the  finished  picture  shall  be,  for  they  always 
fade  more  or  less  in  the  subsequent  toning  and 
fixing  operations.  It  is  difficult  to  give  definite 
directions  for  the  exact  extent  to  which  this  extra 
printing  should  be  carried,  especially  as  it  varies 
for  different  papers  and  different  toning  solu- 
tions ; but  a little  experience  will  soon  reveal  the 
amount  of  fading  which  has  to  be  guarded 
against  with  any  particular  materials  and  pre- 
cautions can  be  taken  accordingly. 

Toning.— When  the  prints  are  taken  from  the 
frame  they  are  of  a bright  red  color,  not  alto- 
gether a displeasing  hue,  if  it  could  be  retained, 
but  it  can  not,  for  the  effect  of  the  necessary  fix- 
ing bath  is  to  transform  it  into  a horrible  bilious 
brown.  In  order  to  avoid  this  objectionable  fea- 
ture recourse  is  had  to  what  is  called  the  ‘-toning 
bath,”  a very  dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  gold, 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


1 68 

in  which  the  prints  are  placed,  the  effect  of  which 
is  to  throw  down  on  all  those  portions  of  the 
print  in  which  there  is  already  a deposit  of  silver 
a thin  film  of  metallic  gold,  which  imparts  to  it 
the  proper  tone. 

As  the  toning  operation  is  a somewhat  tedi- 
ous one,  giving  very  nearly  as  much  trouble 
where  only  two  prints  are  concerned  as  for  two 
dozen,  it  is  expedient  to  postpone  it  until  there 
are  a sufficient  number  of  photographs  to  be 
toned  to  make  it  worth  while.  Albeit,  the  treat- 
ment should  not  be  put  off  for  too  long,  as  the 
prints  deteriorate  with  the  lapse  of  time.  A week 
or  so,  however,  will  have  no  appreciable  deter- 
rent effect  if  prints  are  kept  in  an  absolutely  dark 
receptacle. 

The  formulae  and  treatment  recommended  by 
the  manufacturer — who,  it  is  only  natural  to  sup- 
pose, knows  more  about  the  peculiarities  o*f  his 
own  products  than  any  one  else — should  be 
strictly  adhered  to.  In  the  sheet  of  instructions 
issued  with  every  packet  of  paper  there  is  given 
an  extremely  simple  and  excellent  recipe  for  a 
toning  bath,  although  it  is  generally  pointed  out 
that  any  of  the  recognized  formulae  for  this  class 
of  paper  may  be  used. 

All  photographic  chemicals  may  be  very  much 
deteriorated  by  accidental  admixture  with  for- 
eign substances,  but  none  are  so  sensitive  to  con- 
tamination as  the  toning  bath.  A separate  dish 
should  be  reserved  for  toning,  and  never  on  any 
account  used  for  anything  else.  Successful  ton- 
ing can  only  be  accomplished  bv  observing  the 
greatest  cleanliness  in  all  the  operations  and  all 
the  materials  and  vessels  used,  for  the  smallest 
quantity  of  hypo,  for  instance,  will  have  a very 
detrimental  effect  upon  the  results. 


/ 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


169 


Chloride  of  gold  is  a component  part  of  nearly 
all  toning  baths  and  it  is  advisable  for  the  ama- 
teur to  have  always  prepared  a quantity  of  gold 
solution,  ready  for  immediate  use. 

This  chemical  (chloride  of  gold)  being  a very 
precious  salt,  and,  moreover,  being  deliquescent — 
that  is,  liable  to  take  up  moisture  from  the  air 
and  become  liquid — is  sold  for  photographic  pur- 
poses in  tiny,  hermetically-sealed  tubes  holding 
15  grains  apiece.  This  small  quantity  of  the  tiny 
crystals  being  practically  unweighable  by  ordi- 
nary mortals,  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  mix 
it  with  water,  which  can  then  be  conveniently 
measured.  Procure  a 16-ounce  stoppered  bot- 
tle, put  15  ounces  of  water  in  it,  together  with 
the  tube  of  gold,  from  which  the  label  must  be 
previously  washed  with  warm  water,  then  in- 
sert the  stopper  and  shake  the  bottle  until  the 
tube  breaks.  You  will  then  have  a solution  of 
gold  chloride  in  which  every  ounce  contains  one 
grain  of  the  precious  chemical,  which  can  be 
easily  measured  out  into  the  required  quantities 
by  means  of  a graduated  glass. 

It  will  be  found  that  some  formulae  require 
the  use  of  a certain  number  of  ounces  of  gold 
solution.  Others  state  that  a certain  number 
of  grains  of  gold  must  be  used.  These  appar- 
ently conflicting  requirements  need  not  prove 
confusing  to  the  amateur  if  he  will  remember 
that,  when  made  up  according  to  directions 
given  above,  each  ounce  of  the  gold  solution  con- 
tains one  grain  of  pure  chloride  of  gold.  Hence, 
when  the  formula  he  intends  following  calls 
for,  say,  7*4  grains  of  gold  he  must  use  714  ounces 
of  the  gold  solution. 

Having  thus  prepared  his  gold  solution,  the 
amateur  is  ready  to  make  up  his  toning  bath  ac- 


170 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


cording  to  the  special  instructions  accompanying 
the  particular  brand  of  paper  he  is  using  or  ac- 
cording to  instructions  herein  given. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  TONING  WITH  THE 
COMBINED  BATH. 

Place  prints  without  previous  washing  in  the 
following  combined  toning  and  fixing  bath : 


Stock  Solution. 

A — Hyposulphite  of  soda 8 oz. 

Alum  (crystals)  6 oz. 

Sugar  (granulated)  2 oz. 

Water  8o  oz. 

Dissolve  above  in  cold  water  and 

When  dissolved  add  borax 2 oz. 

Dissolved  in  hot  water 8 oz. 

Let  stand  over  night  and  decant  clear  liquid. 
Stock  Solution. 

B — Pure  chloride  of  gold 7j4  grains 

Acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead).  .64  grains 

Water  8 oz. 

Solution  B should  be  shaken  up  before  using 
and  not  filtered. 

To  tone  fifteen  4x5  prints  take: 

Stock  Solution  A 8 oz. 

Stock  Solution  B 1 oz. 

Pour  the  toning  solution  into  a suitable  tray 


and  immerse  the  prints  one  after  another.  Sev- 
eral prints  can  be  toned  at  once  if  they  are  kept 
in  motion  and  not  allowed  to  lie  in  contact.  Turn 
the  prints  all  face  down  and  then  face  up  and 
repeat  this  all  the  time  they  are  toning.  The 
prints  will  begin  to  change  color  almost  imme- 
diately from  reddish  brown  to  reddish  yellow, 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


171 

then  to  brown  and  finally  to  purple.  The  change 
will  be  gradual  from  one  shade  to  another  and 
the  toning  should  be  stopped  when  the  print  gets 
the  shade  desired. 

When  the  proper  shade  has  been  obtained  in 
toning  bath  the  prints  should  be  transferred  for 
five  minutes  to  the  following  salt  solution  to  stop 
the  toning: 

Salt 1 oz. 

Water 32  oz. 

The  extra  fixing  bath  should  be  used  to  en- 
sure thorough  fixing. 

After  the  salt  bath  give  one  change  of  cold 
water  and  fix  for  ten  minutes  in  the 

Extra  Fixing  Bath. 


Hyposulphite  of  soda 1 oz. 

Sulphite  of  soda  (crystals) 60  grains 

Borax  %.  oz. 

Water 20  oz. 


Wash  one  hour  in  running  cold  water  or  in 
sixteen  changes  of  cold  water,  when  prints  may 
be  mounted. 

The  combined  bath  must  be  started  cold,  not 
above  50  degrees  Fahr.,  and  must  not  be  allowed 
to  rise  to  temperature  above  60  degrees  Fahr. 
This  condition  can  be  obtained  by  placing  a piece 
of  ice  in  the  bath  when  toning.  If  the  bath  is 
too  warm,  you  will  get  yellow  prints  with  a 
greenish  cast  in  the  half  tones. 

Use  a thermometer  and  keep  it  in  toning  bath 
all  the  time. 

The  combined  bath  is  an  acid  solution.  The 
borax  neutralizes  only  the  excess  of  acid  in  the 
alum.  Any  attempt  to  neutralize  the  bath  will 
precipitate  the  alum. 


1*J2  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

The  combined  bath  should  not  be  used  a sec- 
ond time. 

Clean  trays  once  a week  with  nitric  acid  or 
sulphuric  acid  and  water  to  prevent  white  spots 
or  blotches  on  the  prints. 

TONING  BY  THE  SEPARATE  TONING 
AND  FIXING  METHOD. 

The  method  of  toning  and  fixing  just  described 
is  by  means  of  the  combined  bath.  That  is  a 
solution  in  which  the  chemicals  for  toning  the 
prints  and  those  for  fixing  (rendering  them  per- 
manent) are  combined  in  the  one  solution. 

The  combined  bath  has  as  its  chief  claim  to 
consideration  the  fact  that  when  it  is  used  the 
operations  of  toning,  fixing  and  washing  are  ren- 
dered much  less  tedious  than  when  the  separate 
method  is  used.  However,  very  few  combined 
baths  will  produce  permanent  prints,  hence  the 
photographer  has  recourse  to  what  is  known  as 
the  separate  method  of  toning  and  fixing,  which, 
when  properly  used,  will  render  absolutely  per- 
manent prints. 

To  use  the  separate  methods  mix  as  follows: 

Toning  Bath. 

Chloride  of  gold i grain 

Water 40  oz. 

Alkali  (saturated  solution  of  borax 
or  bicarbonate  of  soda) 10  drops 

To  obtain  warm  tones  use  less  alkali.  To  ob- 
tain cold  tones  use  more  alkali. 

Having  mixed  up  the  toning  bath,  put  it  aside 
while  you  give  the  prints  their  preliminary  wash- 
ing. Place  them  one  by  one,  taking  care  that 
each  is  submerged  before  the  next  is  put  in,  into 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  I 

a large  basin  full  of  clean,  cold  water  and  as  soon 
as  all  are  in  transfer  them  one  at  a time  to  am 
other  similar  bath  of  water  and  then  again  to  tin- 
third  and  so  on  until  all  have  been  washed  in 
several  changes  of  water  for  at  least  ten  min- 
utes. 

When  the  prints  are  ready  for  toning  they 
should  be  removed  from  the  washing  water,  for 
too  much  soaking  is  not  good  for  them,  and  put 
in  a heap  to  drain.  Then  one  at  a time  they 
are  placed  in  the  toning  bath  and  kept  moving 
about  in  the  solution  until  there  are  about  a 
dozen  under  treatment.  This  is  about  as  many 
as  can  be  comfortably  attended  to,  and  by  this 
time  the  first  ones  should  be  nearly  toned.  As 
soon  as  this  stage  is  reached  the  print  should  be 
transferred  to  another  dish  of  clean,  cold  water, 
to  stop  further  .action,  and  a fresh  one  can  be  put 
into  the  toning  bath  to  take  its  place.  Mean- 
while all  the  prints  in  the  toning  solution  must 
be  kept  in  constant  motion  to  avoid  unequal  ac- 
tion, from  which  patchy  pictures  would  result ; 
the  best  plan  is  to  keep  continually  drawing  the 
bottom  print  out  of  the  liquid  and  placing  it  on 
the  top,  taking  each  one  from  the  bath  as  it  is 
seen  to  be  finished  and  replacing  it  with  a fresh 
one  from  the  heap. 

When  all  the  prints  have  been  through  this 
operation  the  fixing  bath  should  be  prepared. 
The  fixing  bath  is  much  weaker  than  that  used 
for  negative  work,  and  should  always  be  freshly 
mixed  for  each  batch  of  prints.  The  following 
strength  is  recommended,  though  the  propor- 
tions need  not  be  very  exactly  measured: 

Fixing  Bath. 


Hyposulphite  of  soda 3 oz. 

Water  20  oz. 


174 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


1 en  minutes  will  suffice  to  complete  the  opera- 
tion and  again  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent 
the  prints  sticking  too  closely  to  one  another 
and  so  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  hypo.  The 
final  washing,  whose  duty,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
negatives,  is  to  remove  all  trace  of  the  hypo  and 
which  must,  therefore,  be  most  thoroughly  per- 
formed, for  upon  its  thoroughness  the  perma- 
nency of  the  prints  almost  entirely  depends,  takes 
at  least  fifty  minutes,  and  is  best  accomplished 
in  a print  washer  in  running  water,  if  possible,  or, 
failing  that,  in  continual  changes,  one  print  at  a 
time. 

PRINTING  ON  DEVELOPING  PAPER. 

For  the  amateur  there  is  perhaps  no  more  sat- 
isfactory printing  process  than  that  offered  by 
the  use  of  developing  paper.  There  are  many 
brands  of  this  kind  of  paper  on  the  market  which 
are  familiar  to  most  users  of  the  camera,  viz. : 
Velox,  Dekko,  Argo,  etc.  Papers  of  this  class 
are  many  times  as  rapid  as  printing-out  paper. 
Prints  made  by  this  process  give  soft  platinum 
effects  with  a minimum  of  trouble  and  expense. 

Printing  may  be  done  by  either  artificial  light 
or  daylight  and  the  print  then  developed  by  sub- 
dued daylight  or  lamp  light.  If  daylight  be  used 
the  amateur  should  simply  pull  down  all  of  the 
window  shades  and,  having  filled  the  printing 
frame  in  the  usual  manner,  step  to  the  window, 
raise  the  shade  a trifle,  give  the  required  ex- 
posure, pull  down  the  shade  and  proceed  with 
development.  If  exposure  is  made  by  gas  light 
he  should  turn  up  the  jet  to  its  full  capacity  for 
the  required  time  and  when  ready  for  developing 
simply  turn  the  gas  low,  so  as  to  subdue  the 
light,  and  then  work  directly  under  it.  To  the 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


75 


amateur  who  has  no  regularly  equipped  dark 
room  this  feature  of  the  paper  is  a great  con- 
venience, as  the  bath  room  or  kitchen  can  be 
readily  utilized  for  the  work  either  by  day  or 
night,  without  the  necessity  of  pinning  blankets 
over  doors  and  windows  to  stop  each  stray  ray  of 
light. 

When  filling  the  printing  frame  the  paper  not 
used  should  be  promptly  replaced  in  its  envelope 
and  put  away  in  a dark  drawer. 

Exposure0 — As  papers  of  this  class  vary  in 
sensitiveness  the  instructions  given,  so  far  as 
duration  of  exposure  is  concerned,  are  but  gen- 
eral. The  special  instructions  inclosed  in  every 
package  of  paper  must  be  accepted  in  preference 
to  any  general  rule.  To  print  from  a negative 
of  average  density  expose  two  minutes,  six  inches 
from  an  ordinary  six-foot  gas  burner.  A very 
thin  negative  will  print  in  about  one  minute  and 
a very  dense  one  would  require  from  four  to 
five  minutes,  but  the  average  exposures  will  be 
from  two  to  three  minutes  by  this  light.  If  ex- 
posed to  direct  sunlight  an  exposure  of  from  one 
to  five  seconds  will  suffice.  As  a general  rule 
printing  by  artificial  light  will  give  better,  re- 
sults, and  after  the  first  two  or  three  experiments 
it  can  be  determined  by  the  appearance  of  a 
negative  just  how  much  time  will  be  required 
for  printing. 

Development. — Developing  papers  do  not  print 
out,  but  the  image  is  latent  and  must  be  devel- 
oped the  same  as  with  a negative  or  a bromide 
print. 

For  your  developer  make  up  a stock  solution 
as  follows ; 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Hydro-Metol  Developer. 


Water  

, . 12 

oz. 

Metol  

grains 

liydrochinone 

. . 30 

grains 

Sodium  sulphite,  crystals  pure. 218 

grains 

Sodium  carbonate  (crystals) . 

. .163 

grains 

Dissolve  and  add  about  25  drops  of  a 

. solution 

composed  of  bromide  of  potassium  oz.,  water 
5 oz.  This  solution  is  to  be  used  without  dilut- 
ing. 

Olive  green  tones  may  be  obtained  by  diluting 
developer  with  two  or  three  ounces  of  water 
and  adding  12  to  15  drops  of  the  bromide  of 
potassium. 

Soak  for  a few  seconds  in  cold  water,  then 
place  face  up  in  tray  and  pour  on  developer.  If 
the  print  has  been  properly  exposed  development 
will  be  very  rapid.  The  instant  print  reaches 
the  required  density  it  should  be  transferred  di- 
rectly (without  washing)  to  the 

Hypo  Bath. 


Hyposulphite  soda 1 oz. 

Acetic  acid  (or  alum  l/\.  oz.) 4 drops 

Water  5 oz. 


Keep  print  moving  during  first  few  seconds 
of  immersion. 

Wash  thoroughly  for  one  hour  in  at  least 
twelve  changes  of  water  and  hang  up  to  dry. 

Four  ounces  of  the  diluted  developer  will  an- 
swer for  half  a dozen  4x5  prints,  then  it  should 
be  thrown  away  and  a new  developer  prepared 
from  the  stock  solution. 

Failures  and  Their  Causes. — Weak  prints  are 
caused  by  underexposure  or  weak  developer. 

Overdark  prints  are  the  result  of  too  long  ex- 
posure or  too  strong  developer. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


1 77 


Muddy  whites  are  usually  from  lack  of  bromide 
in  developer,  but  may  be  caused  by  paper  being 
light-struck,  by  forcing  development  of  under- 
timed prints  or  by  failure  to  move  prints  in  hypo 
bath. 

Greenish-brown  tones  are  the  result  of  too 
much  bromide  in  the  developer  or  of  the  use  of 
old  or  weak  developer. 

Yellow  stains  come  usually  from  insufficient 
washing  or  fixing,  but  are  sometimes  the  result 
of  not  completely  immersing  the  print  in  de- 
veloper or  of  not  keeping  them  moving  for  a few 
seconds  when  first  put  into  hypo. 

Brown  or  purple  stains  sometimes  result  from 
incomplete  fixing  or  from  failure  to  keep  prints 
moving  in  the  hypo.  The  remedy  is  obvious. 

White  spots  are  the  result  of  bubbles  on  the 
paper  while  in  the  developer. 

Making  Blue  Prints  and  Sepia  Prints. — Print 
making  on  Ferro-Prussiate  (blue  print)  paper  is 
simple  in  the  extreme,  no  cherhicals  whatever  be- 
ing required.  Make  prints  in  the  same  manner 
as  described  for  making  gelatine  prints,  but  con- 
tinue until  a shade  darker  than  the  finished  print 
should  be,  then  wash  the  print  for  ten  minutes 
in  clean  water.  The  resulting  picture  is  of  a very 
agreeable,  bright  blue  color  on  a white  ground 
and  is, as  permanent  as  the  paper  itself. 

Blue  prints  should  not  be  burnished. 

The  paper  known  under  various  names  as  Sepia 
matt  is  handled  almost  in  exactly  similar  man- 
ner as  the  blue  print  paper  and  produces  most 
beautiful  matt  surface  prints  of  a warm  sepia 
brown  tone. 

Printing-In  Clouds. — The  time  is  past  and  gone 
when  a landscape  photograph  having  a plain 
white  sky  is  considered  complete.  It  has  been 


lyS  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

recognized  that  a photograph,  like  any  other 
picture,  must  show  clouds  of  some  sort,  if  it  has 
any  sky  at  all,  and,  as  clouds — requiring  a very 
much  shorter  exposure  than  the  majority  of  ter- 
restrial objects — rarely  appear  upon  a landscape 
negative,  it  is  necessary  to  introduce  them  into 
the  print  by  a second  exposure  to  light  under 
a special  cloud  negative.  The  amateur  will  do 
well  to  make  for  himself  a set  of  negatives  of 
different  kinds  of  clouds  so  that  he  will  have  a 
number  to  select  from,  and  will  be  able  to  find 
one  to  suit  any  picture  he  may  take.  Attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  direction  of  lighting  of 
the  clouds,  so  that  a landscape  lighted  from  one 
side  may  not  be  wedded  to  a cloud  on  which 
the  sun  is  shining  from  the  opposite  direction. 

The  recently  introduced  Ray  Filters  and  Ray 
Filtergraphs  render  the  making  of  cloud  nega- 
tives comparatively  easy,  as  they  are  constructed 
primarily  for  this  work. 

If  the  black  space  representing  the  sky  on  the 
landscape  negative  be  not  sufficiently  dense  to 
prevent  the  light  from  darkening  the  paper  be- 
hind during  printing,  it  must  be  painted  out  or 
masked  to  make  it  so,  and  this  is  most  easily 
done  in  the  following  manner : Make  a rough 
print  upon  any  kind  of  printing-out  paper  and, 
with  a pair  of  scissors,  cut  carefully  along  the 
line  of  demarkation  between  the  landscape  and 
the  sky  portion.  Put  both  pieces  in  the  sunlight 
to  darken,  and  attach  the  sky  half  to  the  glass 
side  of  the  negative  in  the  right  position  to  make 
the  sky  perfectly  opaque,  taking  care  that  it  does 
not  overlap  other  portions  of  the  picture.  Then 
make  the  print  in  the  usual  manner,  and  after- 
wards print  in  the  sky  from  a suitable  cloud  nega- 
tive, using  the  other  half  of  the  divided  photo- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  1/9 

graph  as  a shield  for  the  landscape  portion  al- 
ready printed,  in  the  same  manner. 

Trimming. — The  prints  should  be  neatly 
trimmed  before  toning,  taking  off  the  blank  edges 
caused  by  the  printing  frame. 

The  majority  of  views  are  improved  by  trim- 
ming off  a liberal  margin ; especially  is  this  true 
of  views  where  some  central  object  really  com- 
prises the  picture. 

A good  guide  for  trimming  is  the  glass  form, 
as  by  its  use  you  can  see  where  to  trim  to  best 
advantage. 

Place  the  print,  with  face  up,  on  a clean  sheet 
of  glass,  and  on  the  print  place  the  glass  form. 
Press  down  firmly  on  the  form  with  one  hand, 
and  with  the  other  cut  along  each  edge  of  the 
form  with  a sharp  knife.  An  ordinary  pocket 
knife,  will  answer.  The  knife  should  be  kept 
well  sharpened. 

A better  method  is  to  use  any  of  the  regular 
print  trimmers  as  sold  by  dealers  in  photo  ma- 
terials. 

Trim  your  prints  freely.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
three  pictures  out  of  every  four  can  be  improved 
by  a judicious  use  of  the  shears.  One  picture 
has  too  much  sky,  another  too  much  foreground 
and  another  one  a whole  side  with  nothing  in 
it  worth  keeping.  When  a portion  of  a picture 
has  nothing  in  it  that  is  interesting  or  necessary 
to  the  balance  of  the  picture,  cut  it  out.  Take 
two  cards  and  experiment  with  your  photographs, 
laying  the  cards  on  them  in  such  a way  as  to  cut 
out  from  view  what  seem  to  be  undesirable  parts  ; 
then  apply  the  shears.  An  experiment  of  this 
kind  will  soon  satisfy  you  that  the  shears  can 
be  used  to  advantage. 

Vignetting. — Portraits  are  sometimes  printed 


i8o 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


in  such  a manner  that  the  picture  gradually  fades 
away  towards  the  edges  where  there  is  perfectly 
white  paper.  This  “artful  fakement”  is  called 
vignetting,  and  is  accomplished,  as  will  be  im- 
agined, by  shielding  the  edges  during  exposure 
or  printing  by  means  of  a suitable  mask.  Vig- 
netters,  as  they  are  called,  can  be  purchased  from 
any  dealer  in  photographic  accessories,  but  as 
nearly  every  different  picture  or  portrait  requires 
a mask  of  different  shape  or  size,  it  is  less  ex- 
pensive for  the  amateur  to  make  his  own  vig- 
netting shapes  as  he  requires  them.  Take  a 
piece  of  card  of  the  size  of  the  negative  to  be 
vignetted  and  cut  a hole  in  it  of  oval  or  other 
shape,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  rather  smaller 
than  that  area  of  the  picture  which  is  to  be  un- 
affected by  the  shielding.  Then  with  a pair  of 
scissors  snip  out  V-shaped  pieces  so  that  the 
hole  is  serrated  all  around  inside  like  the  edge 
of  a saw.  Place  this  card  in  the  printing  frame 
before  you  put  the  negative  in,  and  bulge  it  out 
so  that  the  teeth  stand  out  in  front  of  the  glass 
to  the  extent  of  about  half  an  inch.  Then  print 
in  the  ordinary  manner,  but  in  well  diffused  light, 
and  the  result  should  be  a nicely  graduated  vig- 
nette without  a trace  of  the  serrated  edges  being 
apparent. 

Mounting. — After  the  prints  are  washed  they 
are  ready  for  mounting  on  cardboard,  or,  as  usu- 
ally called,  card-mounts;  this  operation  is  very 
simple. 

Remove  the  prints  from  the  water  one  by  one, 
drain  off  all.  surplus  water,  and  place  in  a pile, 
with  faces  down,  on  a clean  sheet  of  glass. 

Apply  a thin  coat  of  paste  to  the  back  of 
upper  print,  using  a bristle  brush  for  that  pur- 
pose ; place  the  print  carefully  on  the  card-mount, 


MODERN  - PHOTOGRAPHY. 


181 


working  from  the  center  to  the  ends  so  as  to  be 
free  from  air  bubbles.  Place  a piece  of  cheese 
cloth  over  the  print  to  prevent  it  from  becom- 
ing rubbed  or  torn,  and  rub  the  paper  with  the 
palm  of  the  hand  until  the  print  lies  perfectly 
smooth. 

If  the  prints  are  not  required  to  be  mounted 
at  once  on  leaving  the  water,  they  should  be 
dried,  and  when  mounted  subsequently  they 
should  be  thrown  into  clean  water  until  they 
lie  flat,  and  then  mount  as  usual.  Do  not  try 
to  mount  them  while  dry. 

One  of  the  best  articles  for  making  prints  lie 
smooth  is  a small  squeegee  roller,  which  is  sold 
by  all  dealers  in  photographic  materials. 

After  being  properly  mounted  and  thoroughly 
dried  the  prints  should  be  burnished  by  running 
them  through  a Burnisher. 

Card  Mounts. — In  choosing  card  mounts  for 
prints  great  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  par- 
ticular character  of  the  picture  to  be  mounted. 
The  beauty  of  a photograph  is  also  very  much 
enhanced  by  the  harmony  of  its  surroundings  as 
to  color,  etc.,  when  hung.  This  is  not  the  place, 
however,  to  enter  discursively  into  a subject 
which  is  largely  a matter  of  taste. 

As  regards  the  mount  itself,  in  its  relation  to 
the  picture,  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down  any  general 
rules  as  to  its  choice,  but  it  will  be  safe  to  say 
that  it  should  be  chosen  with  a view  to  heighten- 
ing the  effectiveness  of  the  picture  it  is  to  con- 
tain and  of  lending  importance  and  dignity  to  its 
salient  features.  For  instance,  if  the  picture  con- 
tains high  lights  which  require  accentuating,  a 
heavy  mass  of  dark  color  in  the  mount — if  it  be 
not  included  in  the  picture  itself — will  be  found 
to  lend  vigor  and  brilliancy. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


l82 

Where  the  photographs  are  arranged  in  albums 
the  same  variety  of  choice  of  environment  is  not 
practicable ; but  even  here  there  is  scope  for  the 
exercise  of  the  photographer’s  good  taste,  for 
much  may  be  accomplished  in  a negative  kind  of 
way,  by  the  careful  choice  of  neighbors,  so  that 
incongruity  of  fellowship  may  be  avoided ; for 
the  telling  qualities  of  a picture  are  considerably 
enhanced  by  placing  it  among  others  whose  par- 
ticular qualities  tend  by  contrast  to  bring  out 
its  full  beauty. 


Very  convenient  albums  known  as  Squeegees 
have  lately  been  introduced,  in  which  unmounted 
photographs  may  be  inserted  into  the  thickness 
of  the  pages,  as  it  were,  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  cabinets  are  slipped  in  the  old-fashioned  por- 
trait albums.  Photographic  mounts,  either  plain 
or  ornamented,  with  seasonable  legendary  in- 
scriptions, suitable  to  Christmas  time,  etc.,  built 
upon  the  same  principle,  can  also  be  obtained. 

Glossy  Prints. — Few  amateurs  care  to  go  to 
the  expense  or  trouble  of  burnishing  their  own 
prints,  but  they  can  teadily  obtain  a beautiful 
glace  finish  in  a simple  manner  by  drying  prints 
on  a ferrotype  plate  in  the  following  manner: 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


183 


1.  Clean  the  ferrotype  plate  with  hot  water 
each  time  it  is  used.  Polish  with  a soft  cloth 
until  plate  is  absolutely  free  from  dirt  or  specks 
of  any  description.  Swab  with  a tuft  of  soft 
cloth  or  cotton  batting,  wet  with  a solution  com- 
posed of  benzine  1 oz.,  paraffine  10  gr.  Rub  dry 
with  a clean  cloth  and  polish  with  a chamois 
skin  or  very  soft  cloth.  Use  a soft  brush  to  re- 
move particles  of  dust  from  plate. 

2.  Lay  the  wet  print  on  the  ferrotype  plate.  It 
must  be  in  perfect  contact  to  produce  a uniform 
glossy  surface.  This  contact  is  better  secured 
by  avoiding  air  bells  in  laying  the  print  down 
than  by  endeavoring  to  expel  them  by  heavy 
pressure — -light  rolling  with  a print  roller  (with 
cloth  between)  is  all  that  is  required — heavy 
pressure  being  liable  to  make  prints  stick  in 
spots. 

3.  When  surface  is  dry  brush  over  the  back 
of  print  (while  still  on  the  plate)  with  a thin 
solution  of  white  glue. 

4.  When  “bone”  dry  strip  the  print  from  the 
plate  and  lay  the  print  on  a mount,  the  face  of 
which  has  been  well  moistened  with  a wet  sponge. 

5.  Rub  down  with  a dry  blotter,  then  dry  face 
up.  free  from  dust. 

Note. — Prints  finished  by  the  above  process  can 
be  kept  very  nicely  unmounted  if  so  desired,  the 
glue  on  the  backs  preventing  curling. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

PLATINUM  PRINTING. 

So  far  all  the  printing  methods  that  have  been 
described  depend  upon  the  fact  that  certain  of 
the  salts  of  silver  are  sensitive  to  light ; that  is 
to  say,  they  are  either  directly  darkened  by  the 
action  of  light,  or  they  have  conferred  upon 
them  the  susceptibility  of  the  blackening  in- 
fluence of  a subsequent  chemical  operation  called 
development.  But  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  the  printing  processes  is  that  in  which 
the  chemical  salt  of  the  metal  platinum  is  sub- 
stituted for  that  of  silver,  and  so  pleasing  are 
the  prints  made  by  this  process  that  it  has  come 
to  be  recognized  even  by  the  lay  mind  as  some- 
thing distinct  from  the  usual  application  of 
scientific  processes,  and  “platinotypes”  come  in 
for  a large  share  of  admiration  everywhere. 

Of  all  the  modern  printing  processes  at  the 
command  of  the  photographer,  whether  amateur 
or  professional,  none  deserves  to  be  more  popu- 
lar than  the  platinum.  The  simplicity  of  manip- 
ulation combined  with  the  beauty  of  the  results 
obtained  with  it  is  enough  to  recommend  it  to 
every  photographer.  And  above  all,  the  prints 
produced  by  this  method  are  as  permanent  as  the 
paper  which  supports  the  image. 

Its  range  of  yielding  the  strongest  blacks  with 
pure  lights  and  a long  scale  of  intermediate  half- 
tones or  grays  is  only  equaled  by  the  carbon 
process.  The  platinum  print  has  an  undescrib- 
able  charm,  suggesting  atmosphere,  though  the 

184 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  185 

negative  printed  on  another  medium  may  be  en- 
tirely devoid  of  this  valuable  pictorial  quality. 

Notwithstanding  these  decided  beauties  and 
charms,  the  great  majority  of  photographers,  and 
especially  beginners,  imagine  that  platinum  print- 
ing belongs  to  the  advanced  stage  of  photogra- 
phy. 

Excluding  the  process  of  producing  blue  prints, 
none  is  so  easy  and  simple  and  none  requires  so 
few  chemicals  and  so  little  time  and  trouble  to 
produce  a finished  print. 

There  is  no  toning  to  be  looked  after,  a little 
very  dilute  acid  answers  for  the  fixing,  and  there 
is  only  short  washing. 

In  printing,  the  image  is  only  partially  visible 
and  it  takes  a little  experience  in  overcoming  the 
difficulty  in  judging  how  far  to  go.  This  factor 
has  undoubtedly  been  the  great  bugbear  of  this 
otherwise  almost  ideal  photographic  printing 
process,  and  has  been  the  cause  which  frightens 
the  beginner  who  has  generally  accustomed  him- 
self to  some  of  the  printing-out  silver  papers. 
But  in  consideration  of  the  fact  that  the  difficulty 
is  often  more  imaginary  than  real,  and  that  the 
manipulations  of  developing,  cleaning  and  wash- 
ing hardly  take  more  than  a few  minutes,  is  it 
not  worth  while  to  at  least  try  this  mode  of 
printing? 

As  stated,  platinotype  printing  presents  no 
special  difficulties  when  once  its  little  peculiari- 
ties are  understood  ; but  there  is  one  thing  about 
it  which  demands  most  careful  attention,  for 
upon  that  depends,  in  a very  great  measure,  the 
success  or  failure  of  the  process.  The  sensitive 
paper,  both  before  and  during  printing,  is  most 
susceptible  to  the  influence  of  damp,  which,  if 
it  has  been  allowed  to  affect  the  paper,  will  in- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


1 86 

evitably  cause  it  to  yield  muddy  and  degraded- 
looking  prints,  which  are  unsatisfactory  and  un- 
profitable. 

Platinotype  paper  can  be  obtained  from  most 
dealers,  together  with  all  the  accessories  required 
in  the  working  of  the  process.  It  is  manufac- 
tured in  sheets  20x26  inches,  but  can  be  bought 
in  any  desired  size,  packed  in  dozens  in  a tin 
tube.  The  writer  wishes  to  w^rn  the  beginner 
not  to  buy  the  paper  in  any  way  but  in  tins,  for 
otherwise  he  will  not  receive  it  in  proper  condi- 
tion. The  advice  of  some  dealers  in  this  matter 
is  ruinous.  The  paper  is  packed  in  tin  tubes, 
as  it  is  extremely  sensitive  to  damp,  which  spoils 
it.  Each  tin  contains  a bit  of  cotton-wool,  en- 
closing a small  piece  of  asbestos,  saturated  with 
calcium  chloride,  which  absorbs  all  traces  of 
moisture  apt  to  get  into  the  tube  and  which 
would  otherwise  attack  the  paper. 

In  a fairly  cool  place  it  keeps  for  months.  Ex- 
cessive heat  will  deteriorate  it  rapidly,  so  that 
in  a very  hot  climate  it  is  best  to  keep  it  in  a 
refrigerator. 

Inasmuch  as  the  paper  is  more  sensitive  to 
light  than  the  gelatine  and  collodion  silver  papers 
in  the  market,  it  must  be  handled  in  subdued 
light ; that  is,  not  too  near  a window  nor  out  of 
doors. 

After  opening  a tube  and  taking  out  a sheet 
for  printing  purposes,  pack  away  the  balance 
exactly  as  originally  packed,  and  the  sheets  can 
be  kept  in  good  condition  until  wanted. 

As  a further  precaution  against  the  evil-work- 
ing influence  of  dampness  it  is  necessary  to  place 
between  the  pads  of  the  printing  frame  and  the 
sensitive  paper  during  exposure  a sheet  of  thin 
vulcanized  India  rubber,  and  it  is  most  im- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  1 87 

portant  that  the  pads  themselves  should  be  per- 
fectly dry.  Indeed,  that  word  “dry”  is  the  key- 
note of  the  whole  thing;  every  part  of  the  ap- 
paratus used  and  every  bit  of  paper  right  up  to 
the  process  of  development  must  be  thoroughly 
dry  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured. 

The  only  difficulty  about  the  process  is  as  re- 
gards the  exposure,  for  not  being,  strictly  speak- 
ing, a printing-out  paper,  a certain  amount  of 
experience  and  skill  is  necessary  in  order  to 
judge  when  the  operation  is  complete.  It  is 
not  so  much  a case  of  estimating  beforehand  the 
length  of  exposure  necessary  as,  for  instance, 
where  bromide  paper  and  other  processes  of 
printing  by  development  are  concerned,  for, 
after  the  light  has  done  its  work,  there  is  a dis- 
tinct image  of  the  picture  upon  the  paper,  from 
which  an  experienced  printer  can  tell  in  a mo- 
ment whether  the  operation  has  been  carried 
sufficiently  far  or  not.  It  is  much  more  nearly 
allied  to  the  use  of  printing-out  paper,  for  an 
ordinary  printing  frame  with  its  hinged  back  is 
employed,  and  the  length  of  time  required  is 
determined,  not  by  previous  calculation,  but  by 
examining  the  progress  of  the  print  from  time 
to  time  during  exposure. 

The  paper,  when  first  taken  from  its  tin  case, 
is  of  a pale  canary-yellow  color,  which,  by  ex- 
posure to  light,  becomes  modified  into  a light 
grayish  brown. 

In  printing  it  is  exposed  in  the  usual  way  to 
daylight  (sunlight  preferably,  according  to  the 
writer’s  opinion),  and  is  examined  from  time  to 
time  to  note  the  progress  of  the  printing.  This 
must  be  done  with  the  back  to  the  window.  The 
image  is  only  partially  visible.  A little  practice 
will  teach  the  student  how  far  to  print ; actin- 

i 


88 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


ometers,  as  recommended  by  some,  being  entirely 
unnecessary. 

Care  should  be  taken  with  the  prints  in  all  the 
stages  prior  to  the  development  that  they  do  not 
become  unduly  exposed  to  light,  for  its  action 
upon  the  paper  does  not  manifest  itself  until 
afterwards.  It  is  more  sensitive  than  any  of  the 
printing-out  papers,  and  must  be  guarded  ac- 
cordingly. When  first  taken  from  the  frames, 
unless  the  prints  are  destined  for  immediate  de- 
velopment, they  should  be  quickly  placed  in  the 
tube  to  protect  them  from  the  action  of  the  damp 
air.  Then,  when  the  time  comes  to  develop 
them,  they  are  floated  one  by  one,  face  down- 
wards, on  the  surface  of  the  solution,  and  the 
operation  takes  thirty  seconds  or  possibly  more. 
There  is  another  method  of  development  which 
has  great  artistic  possibilities  in  clever  hands, 
and  that  is  by  applying  the  solution,  re-strained 
with  glycerine  in  order  to  make  it  slower  in  its 
action,  by  means  of  a camel’s  hair  brush.  Very 
beautiful  effects  can  be  gained  by  this  method, 
especially  if  advantage  is  taken  of  the  re-strain- 
ing power  of  pure  glycerine  to  hold  back  those 
portions  of  the  picture  which  are  not  required 
of  such  depth  as  the  remainder. 

The  color  of  a platinum  print  is  essentially 
black,  but  this  tone  can  be  modified  to  a small 
extent  by  making  the  developer  very  slightly 
alkaline  for  a warm  black,  or  acid  when  cold 
tones  are  desired. 

The  developing  is  done  by  immersing  the  print 
in  a solution  of  oxalate  of  potash,  which  brings 
out  the  image  in  its  full  strength  nearly  instan- 
taneously. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


189 


Oxalate  of  potash  solution,  nor- 
mal strength;  i.  e.,  1 lb.,  dis- 


solved in  50  oz.  water 1 part 

Water 2 parts 


The  makers  usually  recommend  a special  sub- 
stance which  they  call  by  various  names  for  the 
development  of  their  papers.  But  as  the  treat- 
ment of  the  prints  where  this  developer  is  used 
differs  in  no  essential  way  from  the  other  case, 
it  will  be  unnecessarv  to  further  mention  same. 

As  soon  as  development  is  complete  the  print 
is  transferred  to  a fixing  bath  composed  of : 


Hydrochloric  acid  (pure) T part 

Water  60  parts 


Immerse  the  print  face  downwards  in  this  bath 
contained  in  a porcelain  dish,  and  leave  it  there 
for  five  minutes  or  so,  or  until  all  the  prints  of 
the  batch  have  been  developed  and  placed  in  this 
clearing,  or  fixing  bath.  Then,  when  the  last 
one  has  had  its  five  minutes’  soak,  they  are  all 
transferred  to  a second,  precisely  similar,  bath, 
where  they  must  remain  for,  say,  ten  minutes, 
when  they  are  again  transferred  to  a third  bath, 
compounded  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  and 
there  left  for  a quarter  of  an  hour.  This  triple 
clearing  is  followed  by  a good  washing  in  three 
changes  of  water — to  the  second  of  which  a little 
washing  soda  may  be  added  to  neutralize  any 
acid  remaining  in  the  prints — and  after  fifteen 
minutes  or  so  they  are  ready  for  drying. 

Full  particulars  and  detailed  instructions  are1 
enclosed  in  every  tube  of  paper. 

The  paper  comes  in  various  varieties,  which 
are  marked  as  follows: 

*AA  (smooth,  thin). 

BB  (smooth,  stout). 

CC  (rough,  very  stout). 


190 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


These  are  the  cold  bath  papers  which  are  in 
general  use  here  in  the  United  States,  and  which 
give  pictures  of  a black  image. 

Besides  this  class,  the  Platinotype  Company 
manufactures  the  “Sepia”  papers,  which  are  de- 
veloped hot,  and  give  a rich  brown  print.  They 
also  come  in  the  various  varieties  of  smooth  and 
rough. 

The  most  popular  of  all  these  grades  is  that 
known  as  CC ; it  is  a tough  heavy  paper,  with  a 
decided  tooth  or  grain  like  a rough  drawing 
medium.  It  also  has  better  keeping  qualities 
than  any  of  the  others. 

It  cannot  be  impressed  too  forcibly  upon  the 
beginner  that  moisture  is  the  greatest  enemy 
of  the  process,  and  that  it  is  necessary  for  him  to 
keep  printing  frames,  pads  and  negatives  per- 
fectly dry,  if  he  is  aiming  at  superior  results. 
For  certain  effects  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to 
allow  the  paper  to  absorb  some  moisture,  but  this 
will  hardly  be  in  the  line  of  a beginner.  It  is 
therefore  to  be  recommended  before  starting  a 
day’s  printing  to  dry  the  printing  frames  and 
pads  in  the  kitchen  or  in  some  dry  place,  and 
even  to  dry  the  negatives  if  the  air  is  laden  with 
humidity.  Gelatine  is  very  hygroscopic ; that  is, 
it  readily  absorbs  moisture.  It  might  also  be 
pointed  ouC  that  with,  paper  which  is  old  and 
perhaps  slightly  damp  printing  need  not  be  car- 
ried as  far  as  with  fresh  and  dry  paper. 

Most  photographers  have  an  idea  that  the 
platinotype  process  requires  a so-called  “plucky” 
and  “brilliant”  negative.  This  is  not  the  case. 
Any  negative  which  gives  a good  result  with 
other  papers  will  yield  good  prints  with  plati- 
num. 

In  using  the  cold  bath  paper  it  is  at  times  ad- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  igi 

vantageous  to  develop  it  hot.  This  can  be  done 
in  case  one  is  printing  from  a rather  harsh  nega- 
tive, which,  if  developed  in  the  ordinary  way, 
would  yield  a print  devoid  of  all  graduation  or 
half-tone.  If  developed  hot  the  same  print  will 
come  out  with  considerably  more  softness ; that 
is,  yielding  more  half-tones. 

In  other  words,  the  temperature  of  the  devel- 
oping bath  has  a decided  influence  on  the  tonality 
of  the  print,  as  also  on  the  color  of  the  image. 

The  colder  the  bath,  the  colder  the  image  may 
be  set  down  as  a rule.  The  warmer  the  bath, 
the  warmer  the  image.  Thus,  one  is  enabled 
at  will  to  produce  either  a cold  blue-black  pic- 
ture or  one  of  a warm  black,  the  resulting  color 
depending  entirely  upon  the  temperature  of  the 
oxalate  solution. 

Dampish  paper  yields  prints  of  a brownish- 
black  color,  with  a tendency  to  mealiness. 

At  times  it  is  desirable  to  increase  the  vigor 
of  a print,  and  in  order  to  accomplish  that  result 
the  print  must  be  developed  in  the  following  de- 
veloper, recommended  by  Horsley  Hinton: 


Oxalate  of  potash 1 lb. 

Phosphate  of  potash 4 oz. 

Sulphate  of  potash y2  oz. 

Water 6 pints 


This  solution  develops  the  prints  rather  slowly, 
and  is  especially  suitable  for  prints  from  very 
flat  negatives. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  although  the  Platino- 
type  Company  recommends  its  own  developer  for 
use  with  their  paper,  I have  found  the  pure 
neutral  oxalate  of  potash  fully  its  equal.  Their 
salts  undoubtedly  contain  some  phosphate  of 
potash  besides  the  oxalate. 


\r)2 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Platinum  prints  may  be  toned  in  various  ways. 
The  most  common  is  the  “Uranium,”  which 
changes  the  color  to  a rich  brown  or  red-brown. 
The  ordinary  uranium  intensifier  may  be  used 
for  this  purpose,  the  print  simply  being  im- 
mersed in  it  for  a time. 

An  excellent  method  for  uranium  toning  is 
given  by  A.  Horsley  Hinton : 

Solution  i. 


Uranium  nitrate „ 

.48  grains 

Glacial  acetic  acid 

.48  minims 

Water 

. 1 oz. 

Solution  2. 

Potassium  ferricyanide 

.48  grains 

Water 

. 1 oz. 

Solution  3. 

Ammonium  sulphocyanide.. . 

oz. 

Water 

. 1 oz. 

For  use  take  lA  oz.  of  each  Nos.  1,  2 and  3 and 

| oz.  water. 

A finished  unmounted  platinotype  print,  thor- 

oughly  cleared  from  all  iron  salts,  is  placed  in  a 
flat  dish  and  flooded  with  the  above  solution 
and  the  dish  rocked  continuously. 

The  color  of  the  print  will  gradually  change ; 
the  toning  should  be  carried  on  a little  further 
than  when  the  desired  tint  has  been  reached,  as 
the  picture  will  dry  out  a little  colder  in  color 
than  it  appears  in  the  toning  bath.  It  is  now 
brought  into  a dish  of  water  containing  a few 
drops  of  glacial  acetic  acid.  The  water  must 
not  be  alkaline,  as  it  would  dissolve  the  uranium 
compounds  deposited  on  the  print  and  thus 
change  its  color  again.  This  property  of  alkaline 
water  may  be  made  use  of  in  case  the  desired 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


I(J3 


color  of  the  toned  print  is  unsatisfactory,  and  one 
wishes  to  get  it  back  into  its  original  condition. 

It  has  as  yet  not  been  conclusively  proven  that 
platinum  prints  treated  with  uranium  are  perma- 
nent. 

Besides  the  usual  method  of  developing  plati- 
num prints,  there  is  one  which  is  especially  fasci- 
nating for  the  more  advanced  worker  who  wisjies 
to  control  every  part  of  his  print;  that  is,  by 
local  development. 

This  can  be  accomplished  by  using  the  glycer- 
ine method  referred  to  in  the  platinotype  instruc- 
tions. 

It  consists  essentially  of  painting  the  image  by 
means  of  the  oxalate  solution,  using  a brush  for 
the  purpose,  the  paper  having  first  been  exposed 
to  light  under  the  negative  in  the  ordinary  way. 

The  method  is  so  full  of  latitude  that  prints 
have  been  produced  by  its  means  that  look  like 
fine  wash  drawings. 

In  short,  it  will  be  seen  by  the  various  matters 
referred  to  in  this  short  resume  of  the  platinotype 
process  that  it  is  beyond  doubt  the  printing 
method  par  excellence  for  the  amateur. 

An  entirely  new  platinum  paper  recently  put 
upon  the  market  is  Eastman’s  WD  (water-de- 
veloping) platinum  paper. 

Extreme  simplicity  of  manipulation,  pure  plati- 
num tones,  absolute  permanence  and  rapid  print- 
ing are  qualities  which  commend  this  paper  to 
every  amateur.  It  requires  nothing  but  water 
and  acid  for  the  entire  process  of  developing  and 
clearing,  yet  is  not  only  like  platinum,  but  is 
platinum. 

Print  until  shadows  are  a deep  canary  color 
and  high  lights  are  slightly  visible.  When 
printed  immerse  print  in  hot  water  (no  degrees 


194 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Fahr.),  face  up,  sliding  it  in  edgewise  to  avoid 
air  bells.  Development  will  require  but  a few 
seconds,  after  which  the  print  is  to  be  plunged 
into  the 

Clearing  Bath. 

Cold  Water  15  ozs. 

Muriatic  Acid  (C.  P.J *4  oz. 

Soak  print  face  down  for  five  minutes  each  in 
two  changes  of  clearing  bath.  Wash  for  fifteen 
minutes  in  running  water  or  in  five  changes  of 
clear  water,  five  minutes  in  each  change. 

Paper  should  be  developed  as  soon  as  possible 
after  printing — -never  later  than  the  same  day. 

This  paper  is  packed  in  tubes  and  should  be 
kept  dry  and  cool.  What  has  been  said  regard- 
ing keeping  and  printing  with  ordinary  platinum 
applies  also  to  the  water  development  paper. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


CARBON  PRINTING. 

It  is  very  doubtful  whether  any  process  so  com- 
pletely fills  the  requirements  of  the  artistic  pho- 
tographer as  does  the  carbon  process.  Its  long 
scale,  reproducing  perfectly  every  gradation  of 
the  original  negative,  its  permanence,  its  great 
variety  of  color,  its  wonderful  transparency  in 
the  deepest  shadows,  and  its  adaptability  to  any 
surface,  all  combine  to  render  it  the  most  per- 
fect of  photographic  printing  methods.  Some- 
times, indeed,  its  very  perfection  is  a barrier  to 
its  use.  If  we  have  to  print  from  a flat,  thin 
negative  in  carbon  we  shall  certainly  obtain  a 
flat,  thin  result,  but  for  a negative  with  a very 
full  scale  of  gradation,  especially  large  and  en- 
larged negatives,  it  is  the  process  par  excellence. 
Year  by  year  it  gains  steadily  in  favor,  and  our 
exhibitions  have  greatly  improved  in  general  ap- 
pearance by  the  variety  of  color  it  has  given  to 
their  walls.  In  this  short  article  it  is  my  inten- 
tion to  give  a brief  outline  of  the  process,  em- 
bodying the  salient  points,  which,  if  followed  by 
the  tyro,  should  insure  his  success,  but  at  the 
same  time  I would  recommend  him,  after  he  has 
mastered  the  initial  difficulties,  to  read  some  text 
book  and  make  himself  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  all  the  details  and  higher  branches  of  the 
subject.  Carbon  printing,  as  we  know  it  today, 
is  based  on  the  fact  that  a mixture  of  gelatine, 
with  a chromic  salt,  is  gradually  hardened  and 
rendered  insoluble  on  exposure  to  light.  If,  there- 

i95 


'I96  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

fore,  paper  is  coated  with  such  a mixture  of  sensi- 
tized gelatine,  containing  any  permanent  pig- 
ment— carbon  was  originally  used,  hence  the 
name  of  the  process — and  if  this  paper  is  placed 
underneath  a negative  and  exposed  to  actinic 
light,  we  shall  have  a positive  image  formed  con- 
sisting of  soluble  and  insoluble  gelatine ; in- 
soluble in  exact  proportion  as  the  light  has 
reached  the  surface  of  the  pigmented  compound. 
Development  consists  in  washing  away  with  hot 
water  those  portions  of  gelatine  which  the  light 
has  not  affected  sufficiently  to  render  insoluble. 
Now,  without  going  more  minutely  into  details 
at  this  stage  and  perhaps  frightening  the  be- 
ginner with  imaginery  difficulties,  I would  assure 
him  that  the  process  only  needs  care,  cleanli- 
ness and  exactness  at  every  stage  in  order  to 
insure  success. 

To  those  taking  up  carbon  printing  for  the 
first  time  a start  should  be  made  with  the  “sin- 
gle transfer  process.”  This  is  the  simplest  form 
and  has  some  advantages  over  the  “double  trans- 
fer” because  less  manipulation  is  required,  and, 
moreover,  it  is  easier  to  produce  prints  on  rough 
drawing  papers  by  its  means.  The  only  objec- 
tion to  it  is  that  everything  becomes  reversed  ; 
what  was  on  the  righthand  side  of  the  original 
is  now  on  the  lefthand  side  of  the  print,  but  this 
is  of  little  moment  for  purely  artistic  work.  Of 
course,  where  enlarged  negatives  are  required, 
specially  for  carbon  printing,  they  are  usually 
made  reversed  and  such  will  give  a true  result 
after  printing  by  the  single  transfer  process. 
Eastman  films  may  be  printed  through  the  film 
itself;  i.  e.,  with  the  celluloid  side  in  contact  with 
the  “tissue” — as  the  pigmented  printing  paper  is 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  1 9 7 

technically  called — and  the  resulting  print  will 
render  the  picture  in  its  correct  aspect. 

Requirements  for  the  Single  Transfer  Process. 

Carbon  Tissue. 

Black  Varnish  or  Lantern  Slide  Binders. 

Single  Transfer  Paper,  a little  larger  than  the 
negative. 

A Flat  Squeegee — not  roller. 

Squeegeeing  Board. 

Bichromate  of  Potash. 

Camel’s  Hair  Mop  Brush. 

Thermometer. 

Alum. 

Actinometer. 

' Blotting  Paper. 

Three  Dishes  (two  for  cold  water  and  one  for 
Alum  Solution). 

One  Developing  Tank  or  large  basin  to  hold 
hot  water. 

Sensitizing  the  Carbon  Tissue. — Carbon  tissue 
is  the  name  given  to  the  paper  coated  with  pig- 
mented gelatine  and  may  be  purchased  from  the 
photographic  stock  dealers  in  almost  any  de- 
sired color.  When  insensitive  it  will  keep  in  a 
dry  place  almost  indefinitely.  Should  the  begin- 
ner be  able  to  purchase  it  ready  sensitized,  he  is 
advised  to  do  so,  because  tissue  sensitized  in  the 
making  is  usually  manufactured  from  softer  gela- 
tine and  consequently  development  is  easier  and 
quicker.  Sensitizing  is,  however,  a very  simple 
operation,  and  if  done  at  night  the  tissue  is  ready 
for  use  when  dry  the  following  morning  and 
will  keep  in  good  condition  for  about  a fort- 
night, although,  when  preserved  in  a calcium 
tin,  such  as  is  used  for  platinotype  paper,  its 
longevity  is  very  greatly  prolonged. 


I98  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

The  sensitizing  solution  is  made  as  follows: 


Potassium  bichromate  1 oz. 

Water 20  oz. 

Ammonia 5 drops 


The  temperature  of  this  solution  should  not  be 
over  65  degrees  Fahr.  In  summer  it  may  be 
necessary  to  cool  it  with  ice.  A dish,  somewhat 
larger  than  the  tissue,  should  be  filled  to  the 
depth  of  about  one  inch  with  solution.  The  tis- 
sue is  now  immersed  in  it,  care  being  taken  to 
avoid  air  bubbles  as  much  as  possible ; but, 
should  they  occur,  either  on  the  back  or  front 
of  the  tissue,  they  must  be  quickly  removed  by 
lightly  brushing  the  surface  with  the  camel’s 
hair  mop.  The  usual  time  for  immersion  is  ab^ut 
three  minutes,  but  this  varies  greatly  according 
to  the  temperature  of  the  solution.  A good  plan 
is  to  remove  the  tissue  immediately  it  becomes 
limp,  placing  it  surface  side  downwards  on  a 
squeegeeing  board — a plain  board  covered  with 
sheet  zinc — and  then  removing  the  surplus  moist- 
ure with  a stroke  of  the  squeegee.  Should  a 
squeegeeing  board  not  be  available,  a sheet  of 
plate  glass  forms  an  efficient  substitute.  The 
tissue  is  now  raised  from  the  board  and  hung 
up  to  dry  by  means  of  clips.  The  tissue  does 
not  become  sensitive  till  nearly  dry. 

Drying  the  Tissue. — The  greatest  care  must 
be  taken  that  this  operation  is  carried  out  under 
suitable  conditions,  for  after  all  success  depends 
very  largely  upon  it.  It  is  advisable  to  dry  the 
tissue  as  quickly  as  possible  and  in  an  atmosphere 
free  from  all  impurities.  A properly  constructed 
drying  cupboard  is  very  useful  for  the  purpose, 
although  an  ordinary  room  in  which  the  fire  has 
been  burning  during  the  day  and  which  has  been 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


I99 


darkened  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  white  light 
will  do  just  as  well,  and  tissue  left  there  at  night 
will  be  ready  for  use  the  following  morning. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  expose  the  tissue  to 
even  the  weakest  actinic  light,  because  it  is  more 
sensitive  than  silver  paper,  and,  moreover,  any 
light  action  set  up  continues  when  the  tissue  is 
placed  in  a dark  place.  The  tissue  being  quite 
dry,  it  is  stored  in  a pressure  box  ready  for  use. 

Preparing  the  Negative. — Negatives  for  carbon 
printing  should  be  vigorous  and  full  of  gradation. 
Do  not  attempt  your  first  print  from  a flat,  thin 
negative.  Each  negative  must  be  provided  with 
what  is  termed  a “safe  edge.”  This  is  made  by 
painting  round  the  edge  of  the  negative  with 
black  varnish,  or  by  sticking  a strip  of  black  or 
yellow  paper  round  the  negative  on  the  glass 
side.  Commercial  lantern  slide  binders  are  very 
convenient  for  this  purpose  because  they  can 
be  affixed  in  a few  moments.  Without  this  safe 
edge  there  is  great  danger  of  the  insoluble  gela- 
tine picture  leaving  its  support  during  develop- 
ment. 

Printing. — The  Actinometer. — The  negative 
being  prepared,  we  have  only  to  place  it  in  a 
printing  frame,  with  a piece  of  the  sensitized 
tissue  in  contact,  and  expose  to  daylight  as  in 
any  ordinary  printing  process.  Now,  as  we  are 
printing  on  a dark-colored  surface,  it  is  evident 
that  we  must  have  some  means  for  calculating  the 
necessary  exposure.  Instruments  for  this  pur- 
pose are  known  as  actinometers,  and  any  of  the 
commercial  forms  will  be  found  quite  simple 
in  use  after  one  or  two  trials.  An  alternative 
to  their  use  is  to  take  a negative  of  equal  density 
to  that  we  are  printing  in  carbon,  and,  placing  it 
in  a frame  with  a small  strip  of  Solio  paper,  ex- 


200 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


pose  the  frames  simultaneously  to  daylight. 
When  the  strip  of  Solio  paper  is  printed  to  the 
“pretty”  stage — i.  e.,  lighter  than  it  would  be  for 
toning — we  may  consider  our  carbon  print  is  fin- 
ished and  ready  for  development. 

If  we  pause  for  a moment  to  think  of  what  has 
taken  place  during  printing  we  shall  see  that  the 
image  of  insoluble  gelatine  lies  on  the  surface 
of  the  pigmented  film  instead  of  in  contact  with 
the  paper  supporting  it.  It  follows  therefore 
that  if  we  place  the  “tissue”  in  hot  water  the  gela- 
tine between  the  image  and  the  paper  will  be  dis- 
solved and  the  insoluble  film  forming  the  picture 
will  float  away  and  be  lost.  Of  course,  this  diffi- 
culty might  be  overcome  by  printing  through  the 
paper,  but  this  procedure  would  give  rise  to 
other  troubles.  The  grain  of  the  paper,  the  long 
time  taken  in  printing — even  when  the  paper  is 
oiled — and  the  loss  in  definition,  are  serious  ob- 
stacles to  the  success  of  this  method.  The  diffi- 
culty has  been  met  in  a simple  manner.  If  the 
printed  tissue  is  placed  in  water  for  a few  mo- 
ments and  then  brought  into  contact  with  a flat 
surface  excluding  air  it  will  adhere  during  devel- 
opment. We  therefore  prepare  wood,  paper  or 
other  material  on  which  we  desire  to  transfer 
our  image  by  coating  it  with  a layer  of  insoluble 
gelatine.  Single  transfer  papers,  smooth  or 
rough,  white  or  tinted,  may  be  obtained  ready 
for  use,  but  probably  the  ideas  of  the  photog- 
rapher lead  him  to  sometimes  require  something 
different  to  the  commercial  article  and  he  will 
prefer  to  prepare  his  own.  For  this  purpose  take 


Nelson’s  No.  i gelatine i oz. 

Water 2 oz. 


and  after  letting  it  soak  for  some  hours,  dissolve 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


201 


by  gentle  heat.  Add  to  this  solution  very  grad- 
ually 20  grains  of  chrome  alum,  dissolved  in  2 
oz.  water,  stirring  vigorously  all  the  time. 

With  a stiff  brush  or  sponge  the  chromated 
gelatine  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  wood  or 
paper  and  allowed  to  dry.  Ordinary  papers  re- 
quire two  coats,  but  Whatman  and  other  rough 
drawing  papers  should  have  three.  Should  Nel- 
son’s gelatine  not  be  procurable,  any  other  make 
may  be  used  in  its  place,  but  if  they  are  harder 
the  alum  must  be  greatly  reduced.  Should 
Heinrich’s  hard  gelatine  be  used,  about  four 
grains  of  alum  would  be  sufficient.  A larger 
quantity  might  cause  coagulation  during  mixing. 

Development.— The  print  being  ready  for  de- 
velopment, we  prepare  two  dishes  of  cold  water, 
one  dish  of  5 per  cent  alum  solution,  a tank  or 
basin  of  hot  water  about  100  degrees  Fahr.,  a 
squeegee  and  squeegeeing  board.  Taking  a 
piece  of  the  single  transfer  paper,  rather  larger 
than  the  print,  we  immerse  it  in  one  of  the  dishes 
of  cold  water  for  a few  minutes.  (Whatman  and 
other  rough  drawing  papers  should  soak  for 
hours,  or  else  be  placed  in  the  hot  water  develop- 
ing tank  for  half  an  hour  before  use.)  The 
printed  tissue  is  taken  from  the  frame  and  placed 
in  the  dish  of  cold  water,  which  contains  the 
transfer  paper,  bubbles  being  carefully  avoided. 
It  usually  commences  to  curl  up  and  then  gradu- 
ally unfolds  itself  again.  When  nearly  unfolded 
it  should  be  brought  into  position,  film  down- 
wards, into  contact  with  the  prepared  surface  of 
the  transfer  paper.  Lifting  both  tissue  and 
transfer  paper  by  the  one  edge,  drag  them  out  of 
the  water  over  the  end  of  the  dish  and  lay  them 
“tissue”  side  uppermost  on  the  squeegeeing  board. 
Now  apply  the  squeegee  vigorously  to  the  back 


202 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


of  the  tissue  in  order  to  expel  all  the  water  be- 
tween the  two  surfaces.  The  transfer  paper  with 
the  adhering  tissue  is  now  gently  lifted  and 
placed  between  blotting  boards  and  kept  under 
slight  pressure  for  about  twenty  minutes.  At 
the  end  of  this  time  the  transfer  paper  with  the 
adhering  tissue  is  placed  in  the  tank  of  hot  water 
at  ioo  degrees  Fahr.  In  a few  minutes  we  shall 
see  small  quantities  of  soluble  gelatine  exuding 
round  the  edges  of  the  tissue.  We  now  take 
one  corner  of  the  tissue  and  lift  it  right  away 
from  the  transfer  paper.  Unless  it  comes  quite 
easily  and  without  force,  it  should  be  allowed 
to  soak  longer.  The  tissue  being  removed,  a 
dirty  mass  is  seen  on  the  single  transfer  paper. 
All  we  have  to  do  is  to  leave  this  mass  with  the 
hot  water  till  development  is  complete.  It  is 
well  to  have  a sheet  of  zinc  or  glass  on  which  to 
support  the  picture  during  this  operation  or  the 
paper  support  may  get  damaged.  Errors  of  ex- 
posure may  be  partially  compensated  at  this 
point.  Overexposed  prints  may  be  reduced  by 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  hot  water  to  120 
degrees  or  130  degrees  Fahr.;  while  underex- 
posed ones  should  be  left  to  automatically  de- 
velop, face  downwards,  at  a temperature  of  90 
degrees  Fahr.  When  the  print  is  developed  it 
only  requires  a rinse  in  cold  water,  immersion 
in  the  5 per  cent  alum  solution  for  10  minutes 
to  harden  the  film  and  remove  the  bichromate 
salt,  a final  wash  to  remove  the  alum  and  the 
print  is  then  hung  up  to  dry  by  means  of  clips. 
When  dry  the  prints  may  be  mounted  with  any 
good  mountant  or  starch  paste. 

Double  Transfer  Process. — As  pointed  out 
earlier  in  this  article,  the  foregoing  method  re- 
verses the  picture  unless  a negative  has  been 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


203 


specially  made  for  single  transfer  in  the  first  in* 
stance.  For  direct  prints  where  reversal  would 
be  objectionable  we  must  use  the  double  transfer 
process,  which  is  quite  as  easy  to  work  as  the 
single  transfer,  but  involves  one  more  operation. 

The  additional  materials  required  are : 

Temporary  Support. 

Final  Support. 

Waxing  Solution. 

With  this  process  the  procedure  is  exactly  the 
same  as  regards  the  printing  and  development, 
the  only  difference  being  that  a temporary  sup- 
port takes  the  place  of  the  single  transfer  paper. 
A flexible  temporary  support  is  manufactured 
specially  for  this  purpose.  If  it  cannot  be  pro- 
cured, a sheet  of  finely  ground  opal  will  serve 
the  purpose  equally  well,  provided  the  print  is 
to  be  finally  transferred  to  paper  or  other  flexible 
surface.  Whichever  is  used  the  surface  must 
be  first  prepared  with  waxing  solution.  This  is 
composed  of: 

Yellow  resin 36  grains 

Pure  beeswax 12  grains 

Ether 2 oz. 

After  melting  the  wax  add  the  resin  and  thor- 
oughly mix,  remove  from  the  fire  and  add  the 
Ether. 

A small  pool  of  the  waxing  solution  must  be 
poured  in  the  center  of  the  opal  or  flexible  tem- 
porary support,  and  this  is  then  rubbed  all  over 
the  surface  with  a piece  of  clean  flannel.  Allow 
to  stand  for  a few  minutes  and  then  lightly  pol- 
ish with  another  piece  of  flannel.  Directly  the 
smell  of  the  Ether  has  gone,  the  support  is  ready 
for  use  and  may  be  kept  in  this  condition. 

The  print  being  developed,  alumed,  washed 


204  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

and  dried,  on  the  temporary  support,  is  ready  for 
the  final  operation.  We  cut  a piece  of  the  final 
support,  a paper  somewhat  similar  to  single 
transfer  paper,  but  coated  with  a thicker  couch 
of  more  soluble  gelatine,  and  place  it  in  a 2 per 
cent  alum  solution  about  an  hour  before  required 
for  use.  The  print  on  its  temporary  support  is 
now  immersed  in  tepid  water,  70  degrees  Fahr. ; 
the  final  support  if  withdrawn  from  the  alum 
solution,  lowered  into  the  tepid  water,  avoiding 
bubbles,  so  that  the  gelatinous  side  comes  in 
Contact  with  the  print.  The  temporary  and  final 
supports  are  now  withdrawn  from  the  water  to- 
gether, placed  on  the  squeegeeing  board,  the 
final  support  being  uppermost,  and  brought  into 
perfect  contact  by  the  vigorous  action  of  the 
squeegee.  When  perfectly  dry.  the  print  will 
leave  the  temporary  support  without  difficulty, 
indeed  if  dried  in  a warm  current  of  air  it  will 
probably  fall  off  without  our  aid. 

Where  opal  is  used  it  may  be  necessary  to 
insert  a knife  at  the  edge  of  the  print.  The 
temporary  supports  are  not  damaged  by  these 
operations  and  may  be  used  for  a large  number 
of  times  if  waxed  after  each  time  of  using. 

In  conclusion,  I would  urge  every  serious 
photographer  to  master  this  fascinating  process, 
for,  till  he  has  done  so,  he  must  be  unaware  of 
many  of  the  possibilities  of  his  art. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


CONTACT  PRINTING  WITH  PERMANENT 
BROMIDE  PAPER. 

The  amateur  who  has  learned  to  properly  de- 
velop his  negative  will  find  little  difficulty  in  the 
handling  of  bromide  paper.  There  is  nothing 
complicated  in  the  process ; development  is  sim- 
ple and  easy. 

Bromide  paper,  unlike  the  comparatively  slow 
printing-out  papers,  cannot  be  handled  in  day- 
light, but  must  be  as  strictly  guarded  from  white 
light  as  a film  or  glass  plate.  In  nature  it  is  simi- 
lar, in  fact,  to  films  or  plates  as  the  image  ap- 
pears only  with  development  and  no  toning  is 
required. 

Sensitiveness. — Bromide  paper  is  about  one- 
twentieth  as  sensitive  as  a good  dry  plate  or 
film. 

With  such  paper,  of  course,  printing  is  ac- 
complished with  a very  short  exposure  indeed, 
followed  by  development,  but  no  toning.  The 
work  can  all  be  done  in  an  evening  by  artificial 
light,  which  is  often  a great  advantage  to  the 
amateur  who  likes  to  devote  all  the  daylight 
hours  at  his  disposal  to  the  making  of  negatives 
which  cannot  be  done  at  any  other  time.  A 
bromide  print  is  a study  in  black  and  white,  and 
it  is  very  greatly  preferred  on  this  account  by 
many  people  to  the  warmer-hued  pictures  on 
chloride  paper.  That,  of  course,  is  purely  a mat- 
ter of  taste,  and  the  choice  of  a printing  process 
must  depend  upon  the  particular  predilections 

205 


206 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


of  the  printer,  when  no  other  factors  have  to 
be  taken  into  consideration.  But  bromide  pa- 
per does  not  do  justice  to  the  majority  of  small 
negatives.  It  is  very  well  in  those  of  the  larger 
growth,  where  a certain  arrfount  of  depth  of  treat- 
ment, as  the  artists  call  it,  does  not  involve  a 
loss  of  more  essential  qualities,  but  for  very 
small  pictures,  the  lack  of  brilliancy,  which  is 
inseparable  from  this  method  of  printing,  and 
the  loss,  or  rather  suppression,  of  detail  which 
it  involves  makes  it  not  to  be  recommended  for 
many  subjects. 

Some  pictures  there  are  which  are  greatly 
improved  by  being  printed  in  this  manner,  for 
they  neither  contain  nor  require  much  wealth 
of  detail.  It  is  one  of  the  things  which  the  pho- 
tographer will  realize  as  he  gets  more  familiar 
with  his  art,  that  the  choice  of  a printing  medi- 
um must  depend  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the 
picture  which  it  is  to  bear,  for  it  will  very  greatly 
affect  its  quality  and  artistic  value. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  go  very  extensively 
into  the  details  of  this  process,  for  the  photog- 
rapher is  already  well  acquainted  with  the  treat- 
ment of  dry  plates  and  the  paper  merely  re- 
quires humoring  in  a very  similar  manner.  At- 
tention must  be  paid  to  the  different  require- 
ments of  a positive  as  compared  with  a negative, 
and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
paper  from  becoming  at  all  fogged,  either  by 
stray  light  or  any  other  cause,  but  as  bromide 
paper  is  coated  with  a much  less  sensitive  emul- 
sion than  that  used  for  plates— except  where  a 
specially  rapid  variety  is  required  for  enlarg- 
ing, as  explained  in  another  chapter — there  is 
but  little  difficulty  in  fulfilling  this  condition, 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  20J 

Light. — In  contact  printing  with  bromide  pa- 
per the  exposure  is  preferably  made  by  artificial 
light  to  insure  uniformity,  and  to  avoid  overex- 
posure. Place  the  paper  in  a printing  frame 
in  the  same  manner  a*s  when  using  printing-out 
papers. 

Exposure. — The  exposure  varies  with  the  in- 
tensity of  the  negative,  and  the  quality  and  in- 
tensity of  the  light,  but  may  be  approximately 
stated  to  be,  using  as  thin  a glass  or  transparent 
film  negative  as  will  make  a good  print,  one- 
quarter  second  by  diffused  daylight,  or  ten  sec- 
onds at  a distance  of  one  foot  from  a No.  2 kero- 
sene burner.  Very  thin  negatives  should  be 
printed  by  weak  yellow  light,  like  that  obtained 
from  a kerosene  lamp  turned  down  a little  below 
the  normal  intensity.  In  thi$  way  a strong,  vig- 
orous print  may  be  obtained  from  a negative  that 
would  otherwise  be  too  thin  and  flat.  Strong, 
intense  negatives  are  best  printed  by  daylight. 

Development. — It  is  in  the  development  that 
the  chief  difference  lies  between  the  treatment 
of  bromide  paper  and  plates,  for  a different  kind 
of  result  is  expected.  In  negative  work  it  does 
not  matter  if  the  brightest  portions  are  a little 
veiled — indeed,  they  generally  are — it  merely  in- 
creases the  time  required  in  the  subsequent 
printing  to  a slight  extent,  which  is  a matter  of 
no  moment.  But  in  a print  the  high  lights  must 
be  absolutely  white,  a condition  which  could 
scarcely  be  fulfilled  by  any  of  the  reducing  agents 
in  common  use  for  negative  work. 

Owing  to  this  requirement  the  choice  of  devel- 
opers is  somewhat  limited.  It  will  suffice  here 
to  describe  the  one  which  is  generally  recognized 


208 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


as  the  best  for  the  purpose.  It  is  in  two  solu- 
tions, as  follows : 

No.  i. 

Neutral  oxalate  of  potash.  I lb.  avoirdupois 
Bromide  of  ammonium.  . .20  grains 
Water  (warm)  64  oz. 

No.  2. 

Sulphate  of  iron 1 lb.  avoirdupois 

Sulphuric  acid 1 drachm 

Water  (warm)  48  oz. 

Both  solutions  should  be  filtered,  and  will  be 
ready  for  use  when  cold.  For  use  add  one  ounce 
of  No.  2 to  six  ounces  of  No.  1,  but  not  vice 
versa,  or  a heavy  yellow  precipitate  will  be 
thrown  down,  and  the  solution  will  be  unfit  for 
use.  The  developer  when  mixed  should  be  of  a 
brilliant  red  color,  like  so  much  red  ink,  and 
clear,  or  it  is  not  in  good  condition.  Both  in- 
gredients, when  separate,  are  colorless. 

The  paper  is  exposed  behind  a negative  in  a 
printing  frame  to  the  action  of  the  light  of  an 
ordinary  gas  flame  for  a few  seconds,  the  length 
of  time  required,  depending  upon  the  distance 
and  the  brilliancy  of  the  source  of  light,  the 
density  of  the  negative,  and  the  rapidity  of  the 
particular  brand  of  paper  used.  As  a rough  esti- 
mate, ten  seconds’  exposure  may  be  given  for 
slow  bromide  paper,  a negative  of  average 
density — which  is  necessarily  a vague  definition — 
and  a gas  burned  at  a distance  of  about  eighteen 
inches.  Rapid  bromide  paper  is  usually  about 
five  or  six  times  as  quick  as  the  slow.  If  you 
doubt  the  distance  of  the  source  of  light,  you 
must  quadruple  the  length  of  exposure,  multiply 
the  distance  by  three,  and  the  exposure  time 
must  be  ninefold.  You  will  in  each  case  be  giv- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


209 


ing  an  exposure  of  equivalent  value,  but  with 
the  longest  time  and  the  poorest  light  you  will 
produce  the  brightest  and  most  “plucky”  points. 
Bromide  printing  is  in  any  case  inclined  to  yield 
results  in  which  there  is  a tendency  to  higher 
contrasts  than  a chloride  print  would  show,  so 
that  with  fairly  bright  negatives  a short  ex- 
posure close  up  to  the  light  is  the  thing  to  be 
generally  aimed  for. 

Place  the  exposed  print  straight  into  the  de- 
veloping solution  without  any  previous  rinsing, 
and  keep  it  there  until  the  image  with  all  its  de- 
tails appears  fully  out,  but  do  not  continue  the 
operation  long  enough  for  the  high  lights  to  be- 
come at  all  degraded.  When  the  development 
is  judged  to  be  complete,  transfer  the  print,  again 
without  any  washing,  to  a clearing  bath  made 
up  by  adding  half  _an  ounce  of  acetic  acid  to 
eighty  ounces  of  water.  It  should  remain  in  this 
bath — whose  function  is  to  dissolve  out  the  lin- 
gering developer,  which,  if  allowed  to  come  in 
contact  with  plain  water,  would  deposit  an  in- 
soluble yellow  precipitate  in  the  thickness  of  the 
film — -for  three  or  four  minutes,  and  then,  after 
a thorough  washing  to  remove  all  traces  of  the 
acid,  it  is  ready  for  fixing.  The  hypo  should 
be  freshly  mixed  for  each  batch  of  prints  and 
should  be  of  the  strength  of  one  pound  to  two 
quarts  of  water,  in  which  bath  fifteen  minutes’ 
soaking  will  be  sufficient  to  insure  perfect  fix- 
ation. The  washing  and  drying  operations  are 
the  same  as  in  the  case  of  gelatino-chloride  prints, 
and  mounting  may  also  be  accomplished  in  a 
similar  manner. 

Bromide  paper  is  made  in  several  varieties, 
such  as  rough  slow,  rough  rapid,  smooth  slow, 


210 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


smooth  rapid,  etc.  The  choice  between  the  rough 
and  the  smooth-surfaced  papers  should  be  de- 
cided by  the  nature  of  the  subject  to  be  printed 
thereon.  For  negatives  with  plenty  of  fine  de- 
tail a smooth  paper  is  to  be  preferred. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

BROMIDE  ENLARGEMENTS. 


General  Remarks  on  Bromide  Enlarging. — The 

first  thing  to  consider  is  whether  what  you  con- 
template enlarging  is  altogether  worthy  of  the 
treatment.  It  should  possess  some  other  dis- 
tinct merit  besides  mere  technical  excellence ; 
something  which  shall  give  it  a claim  upon  others 
besides  its  producer ; some  value  of  association ; 
the  pictorial  record  of  a holiday,  for  instance, 
or  it  may  be  the  portrait  of  a friend,  and  there- 
fore valuable  for  that  friend’s  sake,  or,  best 
of  all,  it  may  be  artistic  in  itself,  a thing  of 
beauty,  which  it  is  pleasant  to  look  upon  and 
which  will  be  valued  for  its  own  sake. 

Secondly,  there  is  the  consideration,  is  the 
negative  sufficiently  perfect  technically,  to  admit 
of  satisfactory  enlargement?  All  the  tiny  flaws, 
all  the  little  scratches,  pinholes  and  dust  marks, 
even  those  that  are  invisible  as  far  as  the  naked 
eye  is  concerned  on  the  original  negative,  will 
be  produced  upon  the  enlargement  with  terri- 
ble fidelity,  and  a photograph  which  is  capable 
of  producing  a passably  satisfactory  print  may 
fail  utterly  in  yielding  anything  but  an  execrable 
patchwork  when  subjected  to  the  searching  proc- 
ess of  enlargement. 

Enlarging  by  Daylight. — It  could  hardly  be  an 
exaggeration  to  say  that  three-quarters  of  all 
the  photographs  taken  by  the  amateurs  of  the 
world  are,  owing  to  the  very  great  popularity 
of  the  hand  camera,  of  the  size  known  as 

211 


2]  2 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


4x5  or  smaller.  The  universal  use  of  the  hand 
camera  is  largely  responsible  for  this  state 
of  things.  It  is  of  very  great  advantage  to  the 
traveling  amateur  to  carry  about  with  him  plates 
of  the  smallest  convenient  size,  for  not  only 
is  there  by  so  doing  a considerable  saving  of  ex- 
pense and  bulk  in  the  matter  of  plates  alone,  but  - 
the  size  of  camera  and  all  the  rest  of  the  para- 
phernalia should  be  considered.  But  4x5  prints 
are  small  and  generally  fail  to  satisfy  the  am- 
bitious cravings  of  the  photographer,  so  the 
question  presents  itself  whether  it  would  be  bet- 
ter to  go  in  for  larger  apparatus  and  face  the 
difficulties  of  weight,  bulk  and  expense,  or  by  en- 
larging them  incur  the  expense  and  inconveni- 
ence. 

The  enlarging  method  has  many  very  great 
advantages.  Not  only  does  it  admit  of  carry- 
ing smaller  equipments,  which  usually  means 
that  the  photographer  will  be  enabled  to  travel 
farther  afield,  but  the  small  negatives  which  he 
produces  are  available  for  enlargement  to  any 
reasonable  size  and  dimensions,  so  that  he  is  not 
confined  to  one  size  of  picture. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  large  and  beau- 
tiful pictures  can  be  made  from  amateur  nega- 
tives, and  it  is  still  less  understood  that  these  can 
be  made  by  the  amateur  himself  and  without  ad- 
ditional apparatus  other  than  one  or  two  large 
dishes  for  developing;  in  other  words,  the  cam- 
era can  be  pressed  into  service  as  an  Enlarging 
Camera,  and  play  a.  part  for  which  in  the  first 
place  it  was  not  intended. 

The  process  is  very  simple  and  inexpensive. 
All  that  is  required  is  a small  room  with  a win- 
dow, preferably  facing  the  north,  through  which 
the  light  can  come  without  being  obstructed  by 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


213 


any  building  or  trees.  All  light  should  be  ex- 
cluded by  means  of  a wooden  shutter  to  fit  the 
window  frame  (brown  papers  answer  equally 
well  secured  by  drawing  pins).  In  this  shutter 
an  opening  should  be  cut  somewhat  larger  than 
the  negative  to  be  enlarged  from.  On  either  side 
of  the  opening  grooves  should  be  arranged  in 
which  to  slide  the  negative.  If  the  enlarger  is 
so  fortunate  as  to  have  a room  with  a window 
high  enough  to  escape  surrounding  objects  and 


have  a sky  back-ground,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  use  a reflecting  mirror;  should,  however,  the 
window  not  look  directly  upon  the  sky,  a mirror 
30  inches  long  by  24  inches  wide,  at  an  angle  oi 
45  degrees,  should  be  arranged  outside  the  win- 
dow so  as  to  throw  the  light  above  onto  the 
ground  glas,  mentoned  below.  (See  Fig.  67.) 

If  a film  negative  is  to  be  enlarged  from,  it 
must  be  placed  between  a piece  of  ground  glass 
and  a piece  of  plain  glass,  the  ground  surface 


214 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


being  on  the  outside  and  the  film  side  of  the  neg- 
ative being  next  to  the  plain  piece  of  glass.  The 
negative  should  then  be  placed  in  position  with 
the  ground  glass  next  to  the  light.  The  negative 
should  be  inserted  upside  down,  thereby  giving 
an  upright  image  on  the  screen. 

Folding  cameras,  having  an  opening  the  full 
size  of  the  negatives  they  make,  are  especially 
adapted  to  use  as  enlarging  cameras.  Simply 
place  the  back  of  the  camera  to  the  opening  con- 
taining the  negative  (first,  of  course,  removing 
the  ground  glass,  etc.,  from  the  camera)  and 
focus  by  moving  the  lens  back  and  forth  in  the 
usual  way. 

On  a table  or  shelf,  adjusted  below  the  opening 
in  the  window,  place  your  camera,  having  it  so 
as  to  leave  the  back  quite  open.  The  camera 
should  be  placed  in  such  a position  that  the  back 
of  it  covers  the  negative  and  with  lens  pointing 
toward  the  easel. 

The  only  other  article  now  required  is  a sup- 
port for  carrying  the  sensitive  paper  during  the 
exposure.  If  an  easel  capable  of  being  placed 
perpendicularly  is  at  hand,  that  will  best  answer 
the  purpose,  but  an  ordinary  drawing  board 
strapped  to  a box  of  suitable  size  and  placed 
upon  the  table  will  answer  very  well. 

Having  covered  this  drawing  board  with  a 
sheet  of  white  paper,  open  the  shutter  of  the 
camera  as  directed  for  time  exposures,  when  you 
will  see  the  image  of  the  negative  projected  upon 
the  paper.  The  easel  will  have  to  be  moved  until 
the  enlargement  is  of  the  desired  size,  and  the 
focusing  done  on  the  plain  sheet  of  paper  by 
using  the  focusing  arrangement.  Focus  with  the 
full  aperture  of  the  lens,  but  before  exposure 
place  the  second  or  third  stop  in  position. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  21 5 

The  only  light  that  should  now  enter  the  room 
should  be  that  passing  through  the  negative  and 
through  the  lens.  Should  any  light  escape  be^ 
tween  the  camera  and  the  opening  in  shutter,  a 
focusing  cloth  can  be  thrown  over  to  keep  it  out. 

Everything  is  now  ready  to  make  the  ex- 
posure, and  having  secured  a sharp  image  of  the 
proper  size,  place  the  cap  upon  the  lens,  or  close 
the  shutter  if  your  lens  is  one  having  shutter  af- 
fixed, or  throw  a focusing  cloth  over  it  to  exclude 
all  light,  and  then  on  the  plain  paper  used  to 
focus  upon,  place  the  sensitive  paper  by  pinning 
the  corners  to  the  board,  care  being  taken  that 
the  paper  is  lying  flat. 

No  hard  and  fast  line  can  be  laid  down  as  to 
the  correct  time  of  exposure,  as  the  light  is  con- 
stantly changing,  so  it  is  advisable  for  a begin- 
ner to  make  a test  exposure  upon  a narrow  strip 
of  the  paper  he  proposes  to  use,  placed  diag- 
onally across  the  focused  image.  Having  cov- 
ered up  three-fourths  of  this  strip,  give  an  ex- 
posure of  one-half  minute,  then  uncover  another 
fourth,  which  will  leave  half  the  strip  exposed, 
and  give  another  half  minute’s  exposure.  Repeat 
the  operation  with  the  remaining  two-fourths 
and  then  close  shutter  on  the  lens.  It  will  be 
evident  that  this  test  strip  has  now  received  four 
different  exposures.  The  first  fourth  exposure 
has  now  had  two  minutes,  the  second  one  and  a 
half,  the  third  one,  and  the  last  portion  30  sec- 
onds. Upon  developing  this  strip  it  is  easy  to 

Note. — As  a help  in  getting  the  paper  in  the  right  place, 
a lens  cap,  which,  instead  of  being  opaque,  is  fitted  with  a 
little  window  of  yellow  glass,  will  be  found  very  advan- 
tageous, for  it  will  allow  sufficient  non-actinic  light  to  pass 
to  show  the  outlines  of  the  picture. 


2l6 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


judge  which,  or  between  which  of  these  ex- 
posures is  correct. 

It  will  be  a very  dense  negative  that  will  re- 
quire an  exposure  exceeding  two  minutes,  and  a 
very  thin  one  that  will  need  less  than  30  seconds. 

Having  ascertained  the  time  necessary,  pin  a 
piece  of  the  Bromide  paper  of  the  desired  size  to 
the  face  of  the  easel,  being  careful  to  have  it  lie 
perfectly  flat.  Open  the  lens  and  give  the  proper 
exposure.  Close  the  lens.  The  enlargement  is 
now  ready  for  development. 

The  time  of  exposure  required  in  making  an 
enlargement  on  Bromide  paper  is  necessarily  un- 
certain, especially  when  daylight  is  used,  and  is 
dependent  on  many  circumstances. 

1.  The  intensity  of  the  light. 

2.  The  strength  or  density  of  the  negative. 

3.  The  size  of  the  enlarged  picture. 

4.  The  size  of  the  camera. 

5.  The  size  of  diaphragm  or  stop  used  in  the 
lens. 

6.  The  Bromide  paper  used. 

The  amateur  must  not  be  appalled  by  this 
seemingly  formidable  array  of  conditions,  and 
need  not  for  a minute  despair  of  ever  judging 
correctly  in  every  instance. 

While  it  is  true  that  in  order  to  obtain  the 
very  finest  results,  a knowledge  of  all  these  is 
necessary — and  such  a knowledge  as  can  only 
come  to  one  by  careful  observation  and  practical 
experience — perfectly  satisfactory  pictures  can  be 
made  by  the  beginner.  A very  few  trials  will 
narrow  the  exercise  of  judgment  down  to  the  in- 
tensity of  the  light. 

Vignetting. — The  operator  standing  at  the  left 
of  and  half-facing  the  easel  should  screen  the  lens 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


217 


with  a piece  of  straw-board  about  16x20  inches, 
having  a hole  of  proper  shape  for  the  vignette 
cut  in  the  center.  Having  uncapped  the  lens 
the  vignetter  should  be  moved  back  and  forth 
from  the  lens  towards  the  easel  so  as  to  allow 
the  head  and  shoulders  of  the  image  to  appear 
on  the  screen.  The  movement  out  should  be 
sufficient  to  show  the  image  almost  to  the  edge 
of  the  kit,  and  in  far  enough  to  cut  close  to  the 
head  and  shoulders.  This  movement  to  and  fro 
should  continue  through  the  entire  exposure, 
which  should  not  be  less  than  twenty  or  thirty 
seconds,  the  lens  being  stopped  down,  if  neces- 
sary, to  get  sufficient  time  to  operate  the 
vignetter. 

To  get  a soft,  evenly  blended  vignette  requires 
some  little  practice,  but  the  knack  once  acquired 
it  becomes  quite  easy. 

Extra  Printing. — Faces  and  light  drapery  often 
require,  to  get  detail,  extra  time  in  exposure. 
This  is  accomplished  by  using  a card  having  a 
smaller  aperture  after  using  the  vignetting  card, 
and  passing  it  over  the  portions  requiring  extra 
time.  By  keeping  the  spot  of  light  moving  al- 
most any  amount  of  additional  detail  may  be 
obtained  locally.  Occasionally  in  a half  or  full 
length  subject,  a hand  may  require  less  exposure 
than  the  rest  of  the  picture ; in  this  case  a small 
piece  of  cardboard,  cut  to  the  proper  shape  and 
stuck  on  the  end  of  a knitting  needle,  can  be 
used  to  screen  that- part  of  the  image. 

The  paper  lends  itself  to  innumerable  dodges 
which  may  be  practiced  in  a similar  manner,  the 
operator  being  able  to  see  just  what  he  is  doing 
from  his  position  near  the  easel. 

Soft  Effects  in  Enlargements.  — Wonderful 


2l8 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


softness  and  breadth  can  be  obtained  in  enlarg- 
ing on  Royal  Bromide  paper  by  making  the  en- 
largement through  a silk  bolting  cloth  screen. 
The  screen  breaks  up  the  intensity  of  the  blacks, 
adds  to  the  breadth  of  the  half  tones  and  when 
prints  so  made  are  given  a sepia  tone  they  have 
the  appearance  of  rare  old  etchings.  The  screen 
can  be  most  conveniently  used  by  stretching  on 
a strainer  or  frame. 

The  screen  may  be  used  in  direct  contact  with 
the  paper,  in  which  case  the  enlargement  has 
the  effect  of  being  made  on  fine  meshed  canvas, 
or  greater  diffusion  of  light  may  be  given  by 
placing  the  screen  at  a distance  of  about  34-inch 
from  the  paper ; the  farther  the  screen  is  re- 
moved the  greater  the  diffusion  of  light.  The  use 
of  the  screen  increases  the  length  of  exposure 
about  one-third. 

With  “smooth”  paper  the  fine  mesh  or  medium 
bolting  cloth  should  be  used.  With  “rough” 
paper  use  coarse  mesh. 

Silk  bolting  cloth  for  this  purpose  can  be  ob- 
tained of  any  dealer  in  photographic  supplies. 

Development. — Having  made  the  exposure,  the 
next  step  is  to  develop  the  picture,  the  process 
being  much  the  same  as  in  the  development  of  a 
negative.  Fill  a tray  nearly  full  of  water  and  put 
the  exposed  sheets  -of  paper  into  it  one  by  one, 
face  down.  Put  them  in  edgewise,  to  avoid  air 
bells,  and  immerse  them  fully.  Cover  the  tray 
with  a bit  of  brown  paper  to  keep  out  the  light 
from  the  lamp.  Mix  the  developer  according  to 
the  following  formulae  for 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  2KJ 


Oxalate  Developer. 

Formula  No.  i. 

Oxalate  of  potash  8 oz. 

Hot  water  24  oz. 

Acetic  acid  (or  citric  acid  y oz.)  • i/4  drams 
No.  2. 

Proto-sulphate  of  iron  8 oz. 

Hot  water 16  oz. 

Acetic  acid  (or  citric  acid  y oz.)  • • • 34  dram 
No.  3. 

Bromide  potassium  y2  oz. 

Water 16  oz. 


These  solutions  keep  separately,  but  must  be 
mixed  only  for  immediate  use.  They  are  to  be 
used  cold. 

To  Develop. — Take  in  a suitable  tray:  No.  1,  3 
oz. ; No.  2,  ]/2  oz. ; No.  3,  *4  dram.  When  neces- 
sary to  use  a larger  quantity  of  solution,  mix  in 
this  proportion. 

Take  one  of  the  exposures  from  the  water  and 
lay  it,  face  up,  in  the  second  tray  and  pour  upon 
it  the  developer.  Rock  it  back  and  forth  to  pre- 
vent streaks  and  air  bubbles.  In  about  two  min- 
utes it  will  begin  to  darken  in  spots,  representing 
the  shadows,  and  in  about  three  minutes  the 
operator  will  be  able  to  distinguish  objects  in  the 
picture.  The  developer  should  be  allowed  to  act 
until  the  picture  is  of  the  required  depth. 

The  image  should  appear  slowly  and  should  de- 
velop up  strong,  clear  and  brilliant.  When  the 
shadows  arc  sufficiently  black  pour  off  the  de- 
veloper and  flood  the  print  with 

Clearing  Solution. 


Acetic  acid 
Water  . . . . 


y2  dram 
16  oz. 


220 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Do  not  wash  the  print  after  pouring  off  the  de- 
veloper and  before  applying  the  clearing  solu- 
tion. 

Use  a sufficient  quantity  to  flow  over  the  print, 
say  2 ounces  for  an  8xio.  Allow  it  to  act  for  one 
minute  and  then  pour  it  off  and  apply  a fresh 
portion ; repeat  the  operation  a third  time,  then 
rinse  in  four  changes  of  pure  water  and  immerse 
for  ten  minutes  in  the 

Fixing  Bath. 


Hypo-sulphite  soda 3 oz. 

Water 16  oz. 


While  in  fixing  bath  move  prints  about  five  or 
six  times  to  insure  even  action  of  hypo. 

After  fixing,  wash  thoroughly  two  hours,  in  at 
least  twelve  changes  of  water  and  hang  up  to 
dry.  Use  fresh  developer  for  each  batch  of 
prints.  With  a glass  bottomed  or  rubber  lined 
tray,  seven  ounces  of  developer  are  sufficient  for 
a 25x30  print. 

Object  of  Clearing  Solution. — The  object  of 
the  clearing  solution  is  to  prevent  the  precipita- 
tion of  the  iron  from  the  developer  into  the  fiber 
of  the  paper.  This  can  only  be  done  by  keeping 
the  paper  acid  while  washing  out  the  developer. 

Citric  acid  may  be  used  instead  of  acetic  in 
the  clearing  solution,  in  which  case  use  % ounce 
to  the  quart  of  water.  Citric  acid  is  less  liable 
to  cause  blisters. 

Blisters  sometimes  appear  in  bromide  paper, 
and  may  be  avoided  by  using  a little  common  salt 
in  the  first  washing  water  after  fixing.  The  hypo 
must  not  be  stronger  than  three  ounces  to  the 
pint  of  water. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


22  T 

ROYAL  BROMIDE  PAPER. 

The  method  of  developing  given  above  and  the 
Ferrous-Oxalate  solution  is  suitable  for  any  bro- 
mide paper  except  that  brand  known  as  East- 
man’s Royal.  The  following  formula  is  espe- 
cially recommended  for  use  with  the  Royal  Bro- 
mide paper  and  may,  if  desired,  be  used  with  any 
of  the  others. 

Directions  for  using 

Amidol  Developer  (Concentrated  Solution). — 

The  concentrated  stock  solution  is  prepared  by 
dissolving  in  succession  in 

Water 12  oz. 

Sodium  sulphite,  crystal 3 oz. 

Amidol  y2  oz. 

Enough  of  this  stock  solution  should  be  pre- 
pared at  one  time  for  one  day’s  use. 

To  Develop. — Take  in  a suitable  tray: 

Concentrated  stock  solution 1J/2  oz. 

10  per  cent  solut’n  b’mide  potas’m  8 drops 

Water  6 oz. 

Use  cold.  After  exposure,  soak  the  paper  in 
water  until  limp  and  brush  lightly  over  the  sur- 
face while  wet  with  a tuft  of  cotton ; then  flood 
print  with  the  developer. 

The  image  should  appear  slowly  and  should 
develop  up  strong,  clear  and  brilliant.  When 
the  shadows  are  sufficiently  black,  pour  off  the 
developer  and  rinse  the  print  thoroughly  with 
pure  water.  If  the  print  has  been  over-exposed 
a small  additional  quantity  of  a solution  of  bro- 
mide of  potassium  should  be  used  as  a restrainer. 

Note  : The  above  developer  can  be  used  over  by  the 

addition  from  time  to  time  of  some  fresh  developer.  If, 
however,  the  restrainer  solution  has  been  added  to  it  the 
developer  should  not  be  used  again  except  for  prints  that 
are  known  to  have  been  over  exposed. 


222 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Fixing  Bath. 

Immerse  prints  for  ten  minutes  in  the 


Hypo-sulphite  soda 3 oz. 

Water  16  oz, 


After  fixing,  wash  thoroughly  two  hours  and 
hang  up  to  dry. 

Sepia  Tones,  with  Royal  Bromide,  Enameled, 
Matte-Enamel  or  Platino  Bromide  Paper. — By 

using  the  following  formula  rich  brown  and  sepia 
tones  can  be  readily  obtained  with  prints  on 
Royal,  Enameled,  Matte-Enamel  or  Platino  Bro- 
mide paper  after  they  have  been  developed  and 
fixed.  The  tones  produced  are  believed  to  be 
permanent  and  not  subject  to  the  bronzing  in  the 
shadows  which  occur  in  bromide  tones  in  Ura- 
nium. Where  warm  sepia  tones  are  desired  the 
Royal  paper  gives  best  results  if  slightly  over- 
exposed and  under-developed. 


Hypo-sulphite  of  soda 20  oz. 

Ground  alum 4 oz. 

Hot  water 2 gal. 


Dissolve  the  hypo  in  the  water  first,  then  add 
the  alum  slowly ; when  all  is  dissolved  the  solu- 
tion should  be  milk  white.  Allow  it  to  settle, 
then  decant  the  clear  solution  and  use  cold. 

To  Tone. — After  prints  are  developed  and  fixed 
wash  in  three  or  four  changes  of  water  and  then 
immerse  in  the  cold  toning  bath,  being  careful 
to  remove  all  air  bells.  The  print  or  prints  should 
be  handled  over  occasionally  during  the  first  four 
or  five  hours  and  may  then  be  left  in  the  bath  over 
night  or  until  the  desired  tone  is  accpiired. 

After  toning  wash  thoroughly  two  hours  and 
hang  up  to  dry. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  223 

Details. — Be  sure  and  fix  thoroughly  before 
toning. 

Prints  should  be  toned  face  up. 

Solution  may  be  used  repeatedly  by  adding 
fresh  bath  occasionally. 

A number  of  prints  can  be  toned  in  the  same 
bath  at  the  same  time. 

Spots  or  unevenness  in  the  tone  will  disappear 
if  print  is  left  in  the  bath  and  occasionally  moved. 

The  toning  takes  from  fifteen  to  twenty  hours. 


Fig.  68. 


Bromide  Enlargements  by  Artificial  Light. — 

But  all  amateurs  cannot  afford  to  devote  daylight 
hours  to  the  making  of  enlargements,  and  some 
are  so  placed  that  it  is  not  convenient  to  knock 
holes  in  the  window  shutters,  and  various  other 
objections  may  occasionally  arise  to  render  this 
method  of  enlarging  a scarcely  desirable  one,  and 
to  cause  a good  means  of  enlarging  by  artificial 
light  to  be  regarded  as  a consummation  devoutly 
to  be  wished. 

Either  an  ordinary  magic,  or,  as  it  is  now  called, 


224 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


“optical,”  lantern,  or,  better  still,  one  specially 
built  with  this  object  in  view,  will  be  necessary. 
(See  Fig.  68.) 

Such  lanterns  can  be  had,  fitted  either  with  a 
good  kerosene  lamp  or  with  the  much  more  per- 
fect limelight.  Incandescent  gas  light,  too,  is 
much  recommended  for  the  purpose,  and  some 
are  loud  in  their  praises  of  acetylene  gas,  which 
as  now  produced,  and  used  by  means  of  the  mod- 
ern acetylene  generator  and  burner  bids  fair  to 
oust  all  competitors  from  the  field  except  lime- 
light and  electricity.  When  a lantern  is  used  for 
enlarging  work  the  condensing  lenses  of  the 
instrument — (the  large  lenses  directly  in  front  of 
the  light) — must  be  at  least  one  inch  larger  in  di- 
ameter than  the  plate  measures  at  its  greatest 
length.  Thus,  for  enlarging  from  4x5  negatives, 
the  apparatus  should  have  condensing  lenses  six 
inches  in  diameter.  For  enlarging  from  5x7  nega- 
tives the  condenser  should  be  eight  inches  in  di- 
ameter, etc. 

The  proper  method  of  procedure  in  using  the 
enlarging  lantern  is  as  follows:  Take  a smooth 
board  about  30x36  inches — a drawing  board  is 
best  for  the  purpose — cover  it  with  white  paper 
and  hang  it  against  the  wall  with  picture  cord  so 
that  it  will  hang  perfectly  straight.  Place  the 
lantern  on  a portable  table  at  a distance  of  about 
three  feet,  with  the  lens  directly  opposite  to  the 
center  of  the  board.  The  lamp  should  then  be 
lighted.  Any  other  light  in  the  room  should  then 
be  turned  out. 

Place  in  the  lantern  just  behind  the  condenser, 
between  the  light  and  the  lens,  a sheet  of  fine 
ground  glass.  This  will  diffuse  and  soften  the 
light  before  it  reaches  the  negative  and  will, 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  225 

without  any  reduction  in  the  size  of  the  lens 
aperture,  yield  a much  more  satisfactory  and 
pleasing  picture. 

Then  place  the  negative,  film  side  out,  in  the 
negative  carrier  frame  and  insert  in  the  stage  of 
the  lantern  so  that  the  negative  will  be  close  to 
the  condensing  lens.  Focus  the  negative  on  the 
white  paper.  The  size  of  the  enlargement  must 
then  be  determined  by  moving  the  table  on  which 
the  lantern  stands.  When  the  size  is  determined 
it  must  be  again  carefully  focused  and  the  screws 
that  bind  the  rods  tightened. 

The  lens  should  be  stopped  down  if  the  image 
is  not  sufficiently  sharp. 

The  place  where  the  bromide  paper  is  to  be 
placed  should  now  be  marked  on  the  board.  Then 
place  the  cap  on  the  lens,  and  by  the  light  from 
a ruby  lamp  fix  the  bromide  paper  on  the  board 
with  thumb  tacks  in  the  space  marked.  Now 
make  the  exposure  by  removing  the  cap  from  the 
lens. 

The  exposure  is  regulated  by  the  density  of  the 
negative,  the  size  of  the  lens  diaphragm  used  and 
the  size  of  the  enlargement. 

The  following  is  given  as  a guide  for  exposure : 
An  enlargement  11x14  from  a clear  4x5  negative 
with  a medium  size  stop  will  require  about  three 
minutes.  A dense  negative  or  a larger  enlarge- 
ment will  require  more  exposure. 

After  the  exposure  has  been  made  the  paper 
is  then  developed  in  the  manner  already  de- 
scribed. 

WHAT  PAPER  TO  USE. 

Royal  Bromide  Paper. — Is  particularly  recom- 
mended for  use  where  14x17  or  larger  prints  are 
to  be  made.  When  enlarged  through  bolting 


226 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


cloth  and  sepia  toned,  prints  on  this  paper  have 
the  breadth  and  softness  of  rare  old  etchings, 
having  dark,  sketchy  backgrounds,  deep  shadows 
and  snappy  high  lights.  When  using  bolting 
cloth  screen  the  time  of  exposure  should  be  in- 
creased about  one-third. 

Standard  Bromide  Paper. — Is  a natural  surface 
bromide  paper,  which  is  especially  adapted  to  all 
kinds  of  enlargements,  particularly  copies  * on 
which  crayon  or  pastel  work  is  to  be  done. 

The  emulsion  is  coated  on  three  different 
weights  of  paper — -A,  thin  smooth ; B,  heavy 
smooth ; C,  heavy  rough. 

Platino-Bromide  Paper.— Platino-Bromide  is  a 
new  argentic  bromide  paper,  giving  soft,  rich  ef- 
fects, velvety  blacks,  absolutely  pure  whites  and 
having  a dead  surface  like  platinum.  Unlike  plat- 
inum paper,  however,  it  will  keep  before  and  after 
exposure,  and  can  be  printed  by  lamplight.  Pic- 
tures made  on  it  are  permanent  as  the  paper  it- 
self. 

Enameled  Bromide  Paper. — Prints  on  Enam- 
eled Bromide  paper,  when  untoned,  combine  the 
soft  effects  of  a platinum  or  bromide  tone  with 
a highly  enameled  surface.  This  paper  has  a 
slightly  pink  tint  which  especially  commends  it- 
self to  those  who  object  to  the  coldness  of  an  or- 
dinary bromide  tone. 

Prints  on  Enameled  Bromide  paper,  when 
toned  with  the  hypo  toning  bath  and  dried  on 
ferrotype  plates,  are  in  no  wise  inferior  to  the 
best  aristo  prints  in  richness  of  tone  and  depth  of 
detail  and  gloss,  hence  enlargements  made  in  this 
way  from  good  negatives  are  fully  equal  to  con- 
tact prints  and  require  no  finishing. 

Matte-Enamel  Bromide  Paper. — This  paper 
combines  the  brilliancy  of  an  enamele'd  paper 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


227 


with  rich  carbon  blacks.  Like  the  enameled,  it  is 
lent  warmth  by  its  slightly  pink  tint  and  is  capa- 
ble of  taking  a beautiful  sepia  tone. 

Two  Grades — Hard  and  Soft. — The  Bromide 
papers,  except  Royal,  are  made  in  two  grades, 
“Hard”  and  “Soft.”  The  “Hard”  paper  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  use  with  sunlight,  and  should 
therefore  be  used  for  enlarging  by  daylight, 
while  the  “Soft"  paper  should  be  used  for  con- 
tact printing  and  for  enlarging  by  artificial  light, 
as  it  is  especially  adapted  to  work  with  artificial 
light. 

HINTS. 

Mealy  Mottled  Prints. — Over-exposure  and 
short  development. 

Greenish  tones  are  obtained  by  over-exposure 
and  too  much  bromide. 

Face  of  permanent  biromide  paper  can  always 
be  distinguished  by  its  curling  in.  Convex  side 
is  always  the  back. 

Fixing. — The  operator  can  tell  when  a bromide 
. print  is  fixed  by  looking  through  it  or  upon  it  in 
a good  light ; unfixed  portions  will  be  a greenish 
yellow. 

Yellow  Prints. — Prolonged  development  will 
cause  yellow  prints.  The  exposure  must  be  cor- 
rect, so  as  to  allow  of  quick  development. 

Forcing  development  does  not  give  good  re- 
sults for  the  above  reasbn. 

Running  water  is  not  so  sure  a means  for  wash- 
ing prints  as  changing  them  from  one  tray  to 
another,  allowing  them  to  soak  at  least  ten  min- 
utes in  each  fresh  water ; twelve  changes  are  suf- 
ficient— no  less. 

Retouching  negatives. — Coarse  grinding  for  re- 
touching should  be  avoided  and  the  retouching 


228 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


“burned  in”  to  the  varnish  over  a spirit  lamp  to 
avoid  having  the  scratches  show  in  the  enlarge- 
ment. 

Clean  Dishes,  Clean  Hands.  — The  faintest 

trace  of  hypo-sulphite  of  soda  or  of  pyrogallic 
acid  is  fatal  to  good  results  with  Bromide  paper, 
and  the  operator  cannot  be  too  careful  to  avoid 
any  contamination.  The  tray  used  for  develop- 
ing with  oxalate  should  never  be  used  for  any- 
thing else. 

To  avoid  yellow  prints  four  things  are  abso- 
lutely necessary. 

1.  The  developer  must  be  acid. 

2.  The  clearing  solution  must  be  used  as  di- 
rected. 

3.  Fresh  hypo  solution  is  required  for  fixing 
each  batch  of  prints. 

4.  The  washing  must  be  thorough  after  fixing. 

Cleaning  the  Prints. — The  surface  of  Enameled 

Bromide  paper  is  extremely  delicate  and  liable  to 
abrasion,  which  shows  in  hair-like  lines  like  pen- 
cil marks  after  development.  Fortunately  they 
can  be  easily  removed  after  the  dry  print  before 
mounting  by  rubbing  with  a tuft  of  wet  cotton. 

Flexible  Prints. — Permanent  bromide  prints 
soaked  in  a mixture  of  glycerine  five  ounces,  of 
water  twenty-five  ounces,  and  dried,  will  not  curl 
and  may  be  used  for  book  illustrations  un- 
mounted. The  heavier  papers,  B and  C,  are  es- 
pecially adapted  for  this  purpose. 

Straightening  Unmounted  Prints. — After  dry- 
ing, prints  may  be  straightened  by  the  scraping 
action  of  a sharp-edged  ruler  applied  to  the  back, 
the  corner  behind  the  ruler  being  lifted  as  the 
ruler  is  passed  along. 

Glossy  Prints  Without  a Burnisher. — Beauti- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


229 


fill  glossy  prints  may  be  made  on  Enameled  Bro- 
mide paper  by  using  ferrotype  plates  by  follow- 
ing instructions  given  for  this  process  in  the 
treatment  of  Gelatine  paper. 

Another  Method. — A fine  gloss  may  be  given 
Enameled  Bromide  Prints  by  coating  the  mount- 
ed print  with  a solution  of  gum  arabic  1 ounce, 
water  4 ounces ; filter  through  chamois  skin  each 
time  before  using..  Apply  smoothly  with  a cam- 
el’s hair  brush.  If  too  thick  to  spread  smoothly, 
thin  with  water  to  proper  consistency. 

Mounting  on  Card. — Bromide  prints  may  be 
mounted  wet  or  dry ; the  prints  should  not  be 
dried  between  blotters,  like  chloride  paper,  but 
should  be  hung  over  a line,  or  laid  back  down 
upon  glass  or  clean  paper.  To  mount,  brush  over 
the  back  with  thin  starch  paste,  lay  the  print  on 
the  mount  and  rub  into  contact  with  soft  cloth. 

Prints  on  Enameled  paper  may  be  rolled  or 
burnished  or  dried  on  ferrotype  plates. 

For  burnishing  the  print  must  be  quite  dry  and 
a dry  lubricator  used,  castile  soap  answering  for 
that  purpose. 

“C”  paper  and  the  Royal  Bromide  papers  are 
intended  to  retain  their  rough  surface  and  should 
not  be  rolled. 

DON’T. 

Don’t  use  old  hypo  for  fixing. 

Don’t  use  the  developing  dish  for  fixing. 

Don’t  put  the  prints  between  blotters  to  dry. 

Don’t  fail  to  rock  the  tray  well  while  develop- 
ing. 

Don’t  rock  in  one  direction  only,  unless  you 
want  streaky  prints. 

Don’t  fail  to  lift  the  print  up  and  turn  it  over 
in  the  clearing  solution. 


23° 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Don’t  let  a jet  of  water  play  on  the  paper  while 
washing;  it  will  cause  blisters. 

Don’t  use  old  developer  on  large  prints  for 
the  sake  of  economy;  use  it  fresh  every  time. 

Don’t  use  twice  as  much  acid  as  directed  in  the 
developer  or  clearing  solution  ; enough  is  enough. 

Don’t  say  you  can’t  work  bromide  paper  be- 
cause you  fail  to  get  a good  result  the  first  time. 
Perseverance  in  all  things. 

Don’t  expect  that  the  light  reflected  from  a red 
brick  wall  will  be  sufficient  for  enlarging.  Un- 
less your  enlarging  window  has  an  unbroken  hori- 
zon use  a reflector. 

Don’t  suppose  that  a permanent  bromide  print 
is  liable  to  fade  because  the  paper  turns  yellow. 
All  paper  will  become  yellow  after  exposure  to 
light  and  air.  For  example,  see  any  old  engrav- 
ing or  etching.  This  yellowing  or  mellowing  of 
the  paper  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  fad- 
ing. 


CHAPTER  XXL 

LANTERN  SLIDE  and  TRANSPARENCY 
MAKING. 

No  book  on  photography  would  approach  any- 
thing like  completion  without  due  attention  be- 
ing paid  to  transparency  work,  for  that  is  not 
only  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  processes 
at  the  amateur’s  disposal,  but  it  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  for  various  decorative  purposes. 

By  far  the  largest  number  of  photographic 
transparencies  take  the  form  of  lantern  slides; 
for  this  represents  a method  by  which  the  ama- 
teur can  exhibit  his  photographs  to  the  very  best 
advantage,  and  in  such  a manner  that  they  will 
be  pleasing  and  interesting  to  all  his  friends — 
which  cannot  always  be  said  of  a set  of  miscel- 
laneous prints.  It  might  seem  to  the  superficial 
observer  that  transparencies  designed  for  lantern 
work  and  those  intended  merely  for  visual  pur- 
poses would  differ  only  in  point  of  size  and  not 
necessarily  in  that.  But  that  is  not  so.  There  is 
considerable  difference  in  the  quality  of  trans- 
parency required  for  the  two  purposes,  and  one 
which  would  be  most  effective  for  window  deco- 
ration, say,  would  be  almost  useless  for  lantern 
work,  while  a perfect  lantern  slide  when  held  up 
and  examined  in  the  ordinary  way,  appears  to  be 
lacking  in  “pluck”  and  vigor  and  all  those  bril- 
liant qualities  which  give  to  photographic  trans- 
parencies their  chief  charm. 

The  reason  for  this  is,  of  course,  the  very  dif- 
ferent conditions  under  which  the  two  are  viewed. 


231 


232 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


In  the  case  of  the  window  transparency,  the  pic- 
ture is  seen  direct  by  brilliant  light  pouring  right 
through  it  and  going  straight  to  the  eyes,  conse- 
quently, considerable  density  and  depth  of  de- 
tail are  requisite 
to  give  it  effect, 
while  with  the  lan- 
tern slide  the  light, 
after  passing 
through  the  slide, 
is  spread  out  over 
a large  white  sheet 
and  reflected  by 
that  into  the  eyes, 
so  that  a very 
slight  deposit  upon 
the  transparency  is 
sufficient  to  make 
a marked  differ- 
ence in  the  amount 
of  the  illumination. 

The  most  desir- 
able qualities  in  a 
lantern  slide  are 
extreme  transpar- 
ency, so  that  as 
much  light  as  pos- 
sible may  be  al- 
lowed to  reach  the 
sheet,  consistent 
with  a sufficiency 
of  contrast  between 
the  lights  and  shades ; and  good  definition,  for 
the  slight  diffusion  of  focus,  which  is  often  a dis- 
tinct artistic  gain  in  the  ordinary  photograph 
upon  paper  or  other  opaque  support,  is  quite  in- 
admissable  in  a lantern  slide,  where  such  a very 


Window  Transparency. 
Fig.  G9. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


233 


great  magnification  would  make  the  lack  of  fo- 
cus seem  abominable.  Those  faults  in  a negative 
which,  though  almost  invisible  and  unnoticeable 
in  a direct  paper  print  by  contact,  show  up  in  a 
terrible  manner  when  the  picture  is  subjected  to 
the  tremendous  magnification  of  an  optical  lan- 
tern. Therefore,  a grain  of  dust,  a gnat,  a wan- 
dering hair  will  appear  respectively  like  a huge 
boulder,  an  elephant,  and  a sea-serpent,  it  follows 
that  only  negatives  which  are  microscopically 
sharp  and  technically  perfect  or  nearly  so,  are 
eligible  for  the  purpose  of  lantern  slide  making. 

Lantern  Slide  Making  by  Contact. — Optically 
speaking,  there  are  two  methods  of  making  lan- 
tern slides — leaving  the  chemical  part  of  the  sub- 
ject out  of  the  question  altogether  at  present. 
They  are  called  respectively,  the  contact  method 
and  the  reduction  method — terms  which  will 
hardly  require  an  explanation,  for  they  are  self- 
explanatory.  Lantern  slides  by  contact  can,  of 
course,  only  be  made  of  the  same  size  as  the 
negative  from  which  they  are  printed,  that  is  to 
say,  the  objects  which  are  shown  in  the  negative 
will  be  reproduced  in  the  lantern  slide  of  the 
same  size,  and  if  the  negative  be  larger  than  the 
lantern  plate  only  a certain  portion  of  the  picture 
can  be  included  in  the  transparency.  Lantern 
slides  are  now  always  made  of  one  standard  size, 
namely,  SJ4X4  inches,  and  if  that  portion  of  your 
negative  which  you  wish  to  include  in  the  slide 
be  larger  than  three  inches  across,  the  only  plan 
will  be  to  adopt  the  reduction  method. 

However,  the  majority  of  photographs  taken 
by  amateurs  are  of  the  4x5-in.  size,  and  most  of 
these  will  be  of  such  a character  that,  by  sacrific- 
ing half  an  inch  from  either  side — often  not  a 


234 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


considerable  loss — -they  are  available  for  lantern 
slide  purposes  without  further  trouble.  To  make 
a lantern  slide  by  contact,  place  the  negative  face 
uppermost  in  a printing  frame — we  will  suppose 
that  it  is  a 4x5  one,  for  the  sake  of  argument — 
and  place  over  it,  film  to  film,  one  of  the  special 
lantern  plates  sold  by  any  of  the  good  makers. 
Hold  the  frame  up  to  the  light  of  a red  lamp 
while  selecting  the  best  portion  of  the  picture  for 
reproduction,  and  when  the  lantern  plate  has 
been  placed  in  position  satisfactorily,  fasten  in 
the  back  and  expose  to  gaslight  or  lamp  light. 

The  character  of  the  results  upon  lantern 
plates  can  be  very  considerably  modified  by 
varying  the  conditions  under  which  exposure  is 
made ; a long  exposure  to  a poor  light  tending  to 
high  contrasts  or  harshness,  while  an  equivalent 
exposure  under  the  opposite  conditions  tends  to 
softness  or  lack  of  brilliancy. 

Lantern  Slide  Making  by  Reduction — Day- 
light.— But  the  lantern  picture-maker  will  prob- 
ably soon  find  that  he  is  considerably  hampered 
by  this  necessity  to  reproduce  his  negatives  in 
fac-simile  as  regards  size,  for  he  will  constantly 
find  that  he  is  obliged  to  cut  out  portions  that 
are  really  valuable  as  pictorial  constituents,  and 
that  many  of  his  best  views  are  ruined  by  the 
limitation  of  the  process.  For  even  4x5  negatives 
are  not  always  amenable  to  being  ruthlessly  cut 
off  to  the  square  of  their  smaller  diameter, 
though  they  have  been  specially  taken  with  a 
view  to  be  ultimately  made  into  lantern  slides, 
while  those  larger  yield  themselves  up  to  the 
treatment  less  and  less,  in  proportion  to  their 
size.  So  that  if  much  lantern  slide  work  has  to  * 
be  done,  some  method  of  reducing  the  picture  to 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  235 

the  standard  size  soon  becomes  more  or  less  of  a 
necessity. 

Again,  the  subject  is  divisible  into  two  prin- 
cipal methods  of  procedure,  which  come  under 
the  heads  of  Daylight  and  Artificial  light.  We 
will  take  them  in  the  order  named.  If  the  reader 
will  refer  to  a diagram  which  I gave  in  connec- 
tion with  the  subject  of  enlargement  upon  bro- 
mide paper  he  will  see  for  that  work  the  light  of 
the  sky  is  reflected  by  means  of  a mirror  or  a 
suitable  substitute  through  a hole  in  the  shutter 
of  a darkened  room,  thence  through  the  negative 
from  which  the  picture  is  to  be  made,  and  after- 
wards through  an  ordinary  photographic  lens  by 
which  the  image  is  projected  upon  the  sensitive 
surface  placed  to  receive  it.  The  size  of  the  re- 
sulting picture  depends  upon  the  distance  of  that 
sensitive  surface  from  the  optical  system.  Now 
suppose  that  the  sensitive  film  be  moved  so  close 
up  to  the  lens  that  the  image  of  the  negative,  in- 
stead of  being  enlarged,  is  actually  reduced  in 
size,  and  that  the  bromide  paper  is  replaced  by 
a lantern  plate.  Then  you  have  all  the  elements 
for  a daylight  apparatus  for  making  lantern 
slides  by  reduction.  But  it  will  be  much  more 
convenient  in  this  case  to  turn  the  camera 
around  so  that  the  lantern  plate  can  be  contained 
in  the  plate  holder  instead  of  the  negative  to  be 
copied,  for  that  can  easily  be  held  in  a frame  at- 
tached to  the  shutter  in  which  the  hole  is  cut. 

The  negative  to  be  reduced,  then,  is  supported 
in  front  of  a hole  cut  in  the  shutter  of  a dark- 
room, and  outside  of  that  shutter  there  is  a 
mirror  or  other  reflector,  by  which  diffused  day- 
light shines  through  all  parts  of  the  negative 
equally.  Opposite  is  a photograph  camera  con- 


236  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

✓ 

taining  a sensitive  plate,  and  a positive  picture 
of  lantern  slide  size  to  be  made  from  that  nega- 
tive. Thus  it  is  simply  an  ordinary  photographic 
operation.  The  camera  must  be  of  the  long  focus 
variety,  capable  of  racking  out  to  twice  the  usual 
length  and  it  would  be  as  well  to  draw  upon  the 
ground  glass  a circle  or  a square  to  indicate  the 
position  which  the  lantern  plate  will  occupy 
when  the  plate  holder  is  inserted.  Focus  the 
image  as  carefully  as  possible  with  the  full  aper- 
ture of  the  lens,  and  use  a small  stop  for  the  ex- 
posure. It  would  be  misleading  to  attempt  to 
convey  an  idea  of  the  length  of  time  required. 
There  are  too  many  factors  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration that  cannot  be  reckoned  with  before- 
hand. A few  trials  will  soon  show  the  exposure 
required,  and  when  found,  make  a note  of  it. 

The  making  of  lantern  slides  by  reduction  has 
many  distinct  advantages  over  the  contact 
method,  which  has  not  yet  been  touched  upon. 
In  the  first  place  it  yields  far  more  perfect  re- 
sults as  far  as  good  definition  is  concerned,  and 
that,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  a very  important 
matter  in  connection  with  lantern  slides.  Then 
it  admits  of  adding  suitable  skies  to  photographic 
transparencies.  The  amateur  has  been  advised 
to  make  for  himself  a stock  of  useful  cloud  nega- 
tives for  use  in  connection  with  his  various  land- 
scape photographs  as  occasion  may  arise.  Let 
him  make  from  these,  by  contact  or  reduction, 
as  he  likes  (for  if  they  are  4x5  negatives  it  does 
not  much  matter)  a series  of  sky  pictures,  upon 
lantern  plates  just  as  if  those  plates  already  con- 
tained landscape  views  to  which  it  was  desired  to 
add  clouds.  Every  lantern  slide,  aiid,  indeed,  all 
other  transparencies,  are  finished  by  being 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


237 


mounted  with  a plain  glass  in  front  of  them  to 
protect  the  films  from  injury.  Therefore  the 
easiest  way  to  add  clouds  to  one  of  these  is  to 
print  the  sky  upon  that  cover  glass  by  a separate 
photographic  operation,  and  this  method  has  this 
advantage,  that  you  can  “try  on”  a number  of 
different  cloud  effects  upon  the  landscape  pic- 
ture until  you  find  one  that  suits.  Another  ad- 
vantage of  the  reduction  method  of  making  slides 
is  that  it  permits  the  more  readily  of  that  judi- 
cious “faking”  that  may  often  be  the  means  of 
so  greatly  improving  the  artistic  value  of  a lan- 
tern picture. 

Lantern  Slides  by  Reduction — Artificial  Light. 

— A word  or  two  respecting  the  reduction  method 
of  making  lantern  slides  by  artificial  light : If 
reference  will  be  made  to  that  portion  of  this 
work  which  is  devoted  to  bromide  enlarging  with 
a lantern,  it  will  be  found  that  the  negative  to  be 
operated  upon  is  placed  in  the  slide  stage  of  that 
instrument.  Now,  if  the  front  lens  of  that  lan- 
tern be  removed,  and  the  photographic  camera, 
prepared  for  lantern  slide  making,  exactly  as  in 
the  last-considered  case,  be  put  in  its  place,  a 
reduced  image  of  that  negative  will  be  thrown 
upon  the  ground  glass,  and  that  image,  falling 
upon  a lantern  plate,  will  afford  the  means  of 
producing  a slide  by  reduction  with  artificial 
light. 

When  used  for  reducing,  remove  the  bellows 
of  the  lantefn  from  the  frame  at  the  back.  Then 
take  away  the  whole  front,  including  bellows, 
front  and  rods.  Place  a ground  glass  in  the  nega- 
tive holder  first,  then  the  negative,  and  insert 
the  negative  holder  in  the  stage  in  the  usual  man- 
ner and  light  the  lamp.  Then  take  the  ordinary 


238  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

camera  and  point  its  lens  opposite  the  negative, 
focus  sharply  to  the  desired  size,  then  insert  the 
plate  holder,  containing  a kit,  with  the  lantern 
slide  plate  or  transparency  plate,  and  make  the 
exposure. 

As  regards  all  the  other  proceedings,  they  are 
similar  to  those  which  pertain  to  reducing  by 
daylight. 

Developing  Lantern  Slides. — In  developing 
a lantern  slide,  the  main  thing  to  be  borne  in 
mind  is  that  the  greatest  transparency  possible 
must  be  obtained,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
other  essentials  are  not  to  be  neglected.  All  por- 
tions of  the  picture  which  represent  white,  thai 
is,  all  the  high  lights,  must  consist  of  absolutely 
clear  glass.  They  must  not  merely  appear  white 
by  comparison  with  other  portions  of  the  slide, 
but  there  must  be  actually  no  deposit  upon  the 
film,  and  the  test  is  to  lay  the  slide  down  upon  a 
sheet  of  white  paper,  and  if  the  high  lights  do 
not  then  appear  to  be  at  all  veiled,  the  slide  may 
be  pronounced  a good  one  as  far  as  this  most 
important  particular  is  concerned.  But  that  alone 
is  not  sufficient  to  insure  a technically  perfect 
lantern  slide.  It  will  not  do  at  all  if  the  shadows 
be  all  represented  by  dense,  impenetrable  black ; 
for  then  the  clearness  of  the  high  lights  would 
be  only  an  aggravation  of  the  terrible  sootiness 
of  everything  else.  No  portion  of  a lantern  slide 
should  be  so  dense  that  the  print  of  a newspaper 
cannot  be  read  through  it  if  both  are  held  up  to 
the  light.  Remember  that  the  density  of  a lan- 
tern slide  appears  upon  the  screen  to  be  exag- 
gerated, and  exposure  and  development  must  be 
regulated  accordingly ; but  it  does  not  by  any 
means  follow  that  the  height  of  the  contrasts  is 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


239 


increased  to  any  extent.  A slide  must  be  full  of 
‘'pluck”  and  vigor;  but  those  qualities  must  be 
attained  rather  by  the  extreme  whiteness  of  the 
lights  than  by  the  heaviness  of  the  darker  por- 
tions. 

As  regards  the  choice  of  a developer,  that 
should  be  decided  by  the  recommendations  of 
the  makers  of  the  particular  plates  being  used, 
just  as  in  the  case  of  negative  plates  or  any  other 
commercially-supplied  sensitized  commodity.  As 
a general  rule,  hvdroquinone,  as  a developing 
agent,  is  one  of  the  best  that  can  be  employed, 
but  it  requires  to  be  used  with  care  and  discre- 
tion, for  the  very  qualities  which  make  it  valu- 
able to  the  clever  worker  (the  power  which  it 
gives  him  of  obtaining  sufficient  density  from 
even  the  most  unpromising  weak  negatives,  and 
so  on)  are  of  the  kind  to  make  it  unmanageable 
in  the  hands  of  those  who  have  not  taken  the 
trouble  to  master  its  peculiarities.  Here  is  a 
formula  which  will  be  found  to  suit  nearly  every 


plate : 

A. 

Hydroquinone  240  grains 

Potassium  meta- bisulphite 240  grains 

Potassium  bromide  60  grains 

Distilled  water  150ZS. 

B. 

Potassium  hydrate  (sticks) 600  grains 

Distilled  water  150ZS. 


For  use,  take  of  A and  B each  one  part  and 
mix  with  six  parts  of  water.  If  this  developer 
does  not  appear  to  quite  suit  the  plates,  try  using 
a little  more  water,  and  that  will  probably  make 
it  right.  I have  found  it  to  work  very  well  with 


240  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

all  the  lantern  plates  that  I have  used,  and  that 
is  why  I recommend  it,  but  all  the  same,  you 
cannot  do  better  than  stick  to  the  one  recom- 
mended by  the  plate  maker,  unless  upon  trial 
you  find  this  to  yield  better  results  in  your  hands. 
For  there  is  no  doubt  that  different  workers  se- 
cure their  best  results  with  different  developers, 
even  when  they  are  using  the  same  brand  of 
plates;  but  the  developer,  whatever  it  is,  must  be 
one  that  suits  the  particular  peculiarities  of  the 
plates  with  which  it  is  used. 

Covering,  Binding,  and  Finishing  Slides. — I 
have  already  hinted  that  before  a lantern  slide 
is  actually  finished,  it  must  be  mounted  by  bind- 
ing it  to  a protecting  cover  glass.  These  cover 
glasses  can  be  bought  ready  cut  to  size  and  care- 
fully selected  so  as  to  be  as  free  as  possible 
from  any  bubbles  or  other  flaws  in  the  glass. 
That  the  glass,  both  of  the  slide  and  the  cover, 
should  be  very  thin,  will  go  without  saying  when 
it  is  remembered  that  there  are  two  to  be 
mounted  together,  and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
again  point  out  how  terribly  exaggerated  are  all 
little  specks  and  flaws  when  the  slides  are  sub- 
jected to  the  immense  magnification  of  an  optical 
lantern.  However,  the  beginner  need  not  trouble 
much  about  these  cover  glasses  at  first,  because, 
for  every  slide  that  he  turns  out  which  will  be 
worthy  of  mounting,  he  will  in  all  probability 
spoil  at  least  one  lantern  plate,  and  so,  by  clean- 
ing off  his  failures  he  will  be  supplied  with  a 
sufficient  number  of  cover  glasses  to  mount  his 
successes.  The  simplest  way  to  remove  the  films 
from  spoiled  plates  is  to  soak  them  for  a while 
in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  when  the  gelatine 
will  float  away,  leaving  the  glass  support  per- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


241 


fectly  clean.  It  then  merely  requires  rinsing  in 
plenty  of  clean  cold  water,  drying  on  old  linen 
and  subsequently  polishing. 

Between  the  photographic  slide  and  its  pro- 
tective cover  a paper  mask  is  placed  to  form  a 
kind  of  framework  to  the  picture,  and  also,  inci- 
dentally, to  prevent  the  two  touching  each  other 
so  that  the  film  might  possibly  become  chafed 
after  considerable  use.  It  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant things  as  regards  the  ultimate  effective- 
ness of  the  picture  in  the  lantern,  that  this  mask 
should  be  so  chosen  and  that  it  suits  the  shape 
and  character  of  the  photograph.  Color,  of 
course,  does  not  enter  into  the  question  at  all 
as  it  does  in  considering  the  framing  and  mount- 
ing of  an  ordinary  picture,  for  the  mask  must,  of 
necessity,  appear  black  upon  the  screen ; but 
masks  of  all  manner  of  shapes  and  sizes  can  be 
bought  and  should  be  carefully  chosen  for  each 
picture,  while  for  out-of-the-way  cases,  it  is  not 
a very  difficult  matter  to  cut  a special  mask  out 
of  black,  opaque  paper. 

Having  chosen  a suitable  mask  and  placed  the 
cover  glass  in  position,  or  if  necessary,  a cover 
glass  bearing  clouds  of  description  to  fit  the 
view,  the  next  thing  is  to  bind  the  whole  to- 
gether. Again,  the  * fore-sighted  manufacturer 
comes  to  your  aid  with  strips  of  gummed  paper, 
called  lantern  slide  binders.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  you  will  experience  some  difficulty  in  mak- 
ing these  sticky  strips  adhere  to  the  glass,  in 
which  case  strong  starch  paste,  in  which  a little 
sugar  has  been  dissolved,  applied  to  them  in- 
stead of  water,  will  generally  be  found  to  over- 
come the  difficulty.  Lay  the  strip,  gummy  side 
uppermost,  upon  a sheet  of  newspaper,  apply  the 


242 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


paste  evenly  with  a stiff  brush,  rubbing  it  in  sev- 
eral times  till  the  paper  is  quite  limp,  and  then, 
beginning  right  up  at  the  left-hand  side,  place 
the  compound  slide  and  cover  glass  in  center  of 
the  strip  and  press  it  down.  The  next  movement 
I can  only  describe  by  asking  you  to  imagine 
that  the  glasses  are  circular  instead  of  square, 
for  it  is  analogous  to  rolling  them — together,  of 
course,  along  the  length  of  the  strip,  so  that  they 
pick  it  up  as  they  go.  In  reality,  this  movement 
is  performed  one  side  at  a time,  and  when  the 
third  side  is  lowermost,  the  paper  attached  to  the 
first  can  be  folded  over  and  pressed  down  with 
the  hand,  so  that  at  that  edge  the  two  glasses 
are  bound  firmly  together.  Then  it  is  moved  on 
to  one  more  place  and  the  second  side  treated 
in  a similar  manner,  and  so  on,  until  all  four 
are  finished.  The  operation  seems  somewhat  dif- 
ficult at  first,  but  the  knack  of  it  comes  with  a lit- 
tle practice. 

Photographic  Transparencies  for  Home 
Decoration. — If  you  hold  up  a technically-per- 
tect  lantern  slide  and  look  at  it  by  transmitted 
light  you  will  see  that  it  is  not  by  any  means  to 
be  regarded  as  a perfect  transparency  for  viewing 
in  that  manner.  It  will  appear  thin  and  weak  by 
contrast.  But  by  this  time,  it  is  to  be  hoped  you 
will  be  a sufficiently  good  photographer  to  over- 
come that  defect  when  you  want  to  make  trans- 
parencies for  direct  visual  purposes,  such  as  for 
the  decoration  of  windows  and  the  like.  It  is 
really  only  a matter  of  judicious  development.  A 
transparency  that  is  required  for  other  purposes 
than  lantern  work  should  be  carried  farther  in 
the  developing  process,  in  all  other  respects,  its 
treatment  is  precisely  the  same. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


243 


Few  people  have  any  idea  of  the  great  possi- 
bilities as  regards  home  decoration  which  are 
opened  up  to  them  by  photography,  especially 
through  the  channel  of  good  transparencies. 
Such  pictures  come  in  for  a great  variety  of 
decorative  uses,  the  number  of  which,  it  might 
also  be  said,  is  only  limited  to  the  photographer’s 
ingenuity.  Lamp  shades,  fire  screens,  window 
blinds  and  many  other  things  which  are  often 
so  exceedingly  unsightly  in  themselves,  can  be 
turned  into  things  of  beauty  by  the  tasteful  use 
of  photographic  pictures  in  this  form.  Trans- 
parencies intended  for  such  uses . should,  as  I 
have  already  said,  be  specially  made  upon  trans- 
parency plates,  and  backed  with  a sheet  of 
ground  glass  in  order  to  heighten  the  effect,  and 
lantern  slides  which  are  often  too  dense  to  be 
really  serviceable  in  their  original  capacity,  can 
be  turned  to  account,  in  this  manner.  They  may 
be  hung  around  opal  glass  lamp  globes,  for  in- 
stance, where,  besides  serving  the  useful  pur- 
poses of  shielding  the  eyes  from  the  glare,  they 
form  a very  pretty  ornamentation.  But  numbers 
of  such  uses  will  at  once  suggest  themselves  to 
the  fertile  imagination  of  the  photographic  ama- 
teur. It  will  be  quite  unnecessary  to  do  more 
than  throw  out  this  suggestion. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

/ 

THE  GUM-BICHROMATE  PROCESS. 

When  a photographer  has  had  the  courage  to 
go  through  some  technical  article  on  the  work- 
ing of  a new  printing  process  he  feels  the  con- 
viction that  on  following  closely  the  author’s  in- 
structions he  will  be  able  to  produce  a good 
print  by  the  process  described ; at  any  rate  he 
knows  beforehand  what  qualities  this  standard 
print  ought  to  have.  I do  not  see  the  way  to 
produce  this  happy  confidence  in  the  present 
case,  for  although  I think  I am  capable  of  giving 
a definition  of  what  a good  albumen  or  gelatino- 
chloride  print  ought  to  be,  by  comparison  with 
a bad  one,  I am  quite  unable  to  define  the  good 
gum-bichromate  print,  and  no  instructions  of 
mine  will  enable  even  an  ardent  worker  to  pro- 
duce what  a true  artist  will  call  a good  gum- 
bichromate  print.  All  that  I can  do  is  to  enable 
him  to  produce  a sheet  of  coated  paper,  the  coat- 
ing of  which  will  dissolve  and  disappear  in  the 
places  where  light  has  not  caused  insolubility, 
tvhile  in  other  parts  the  coating  will  remain  more 
or  less  adherent,  according  to  the  quantity  of 
light  admitted. 

This  is  the  definition  of  the  process  in  a nut- 
shell : What  we  want  is  a film — a colored  coat- 

ing which,  after  exposure  to  light  under  a nega- 
tive, will  give  us  a surface  quite  soluble  in 
some  parts,  partly  soluble  in  others,  totally  in- 
soluble in  the  rest.  If  we  succeed  in  manufac- 
turing this  sheet  of  coated  paper  we  shall  have 

244 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  245 

in  our  hands  the  foundation  of  a good  gum- 
bichromate  print — it  rests  with  us  to  make  a pic- 
ture out  of  this,  or  a daub,  or  simply  a common- 
place, faithful,  photographic  print. 

For  in  the  gum-bichromate  process  we  cannot 
work  with  the  same  standards  as  in  other  pro- 
cesses. For  example,  in  the  silver  printing  pro- 
cess, under-exposure  gives  a very  bad  print  of  a 
dirty  color  without  strength  or  contrast.  With 
gum-bichromate,  considerable  under-exposure 
means  total  absence  of  image.  One  cannot  say 
that  the  print  is  a bad  one,  for  in  this  case  there 
is  no  print  whatever,  all  the  coating  will  disap- 
pear in  the  developing.  Similar  with  great  over- 
exposure; in  this  case  the  paper  remains  just  as 
it  was  before  printing — a dull  surface  of  black, 
brown  or  red.  But  whenever  an  image  has  been 
developed  and  has  remained  on  the  paper  the 
resulting  print  may  be  good,  for  it  can  be  made 
into  a picture  and  a fine  picture,  too,  if  the  man 
who  works  at  it  is  an  artist  and  knows  what  he 
is  about.  , 

My  meaning  is  that  if  the  color  used  for  coat- 
ing is  well  chosen  and  sufficiently  deep,  its  na- 
ture will  not  be  affected  subsequently  as  it  is  by 
toning  or  developing  from  white  to  black  in 
other  printing  processes,  so  most  of  the  condi- 
tions which  cause  failure  in  silver  chloride,  bro- 
mide or  in  platinum  papers  are  not  to  be  taken 
into  account  with,  this  special  method,  for  color 
and  depth  of  color  have  both  been  chosen  before 
printing  and  developing.  In  other  words,  as  we 
work  from  dark  to  light,  the  conditions  of  ordi- 
nary printing  are  naturally  reversed.  What  we 
aim  at  is  to  keep  the  color  that  we  have  already 
applied  instead  of  striving  to  build  it  up. 


246 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


The  materials  are  simple:  gum  arabic,  bichro- 
mate of  potash,  and  the  cheapest  of  all  pigments 
— earths.  The  gum  need  not  be  pure  white  gum, 
the  ordinary  red  gum  arabic  works  just  as  well 
as  the  purer  samples.  I have  tried  both  and 
found  no  difference  whatever  in  the  results. 
Bichromate  of  potash  can  be  had  of  any  drug- 
gist. Any  sort  of  paper  is  suitable  provided  it 
is  sized ; all  drawing  and  water-color  papers  are 
good,  so  are  most  writing  papers,  but  highly 
glazed  paper  is  most  difficult  to  coat  properly, 
though  it  works  well  when  this  difficulty  has 
been  surmounted. 

Powdered  colors  may  be  used  successfully — 
they  are  cheaper  than  most  tubes,  but  they  are 
not  ground  so  fine.  To  make  the  three  conven- 
tional tints  of  monochrome  work,  the  following 
colors  are  necessary : 

Lampblack,  umber  and  burnt  umber,  sienna 
and  burnt  sienna,  Vandyke  brown,  bistre,  yellow 
and  brown  ocre,  red  ocre,  brown  red,  Venetian 
red,  indigo.  These  colors  are  permanent.  They 
can  be  mixed  in  different  proportions,  according 
to  the  taste  of  the  worker.  No  colors  should  be 
used  pure,  the  result  is  generally  displeasing. 

A saturated  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash 
(10  per  cent)  is  made  with  hot  water  and  another 
of  gum  arabic  and  cold  water  which  has  to  be 
worked  up  to  a density  marking  18  to  20  degrees 
by  the  saccharometer  or  densitometer.  The- 
bichromate  solution  keeps  indefinitely.  The  gum 
solution  turns  acid  after  a few  days  and  seems  to 
give  better  results  in  this  state.  If  it  thickens 
by  evaporation  or  gets  thinner  by  fermentation, 
a small  quantity  of  water  or  a denser  solution 
must  be  added  until  it  registers  a new  18  to  20 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


247 


degrees.  Ten  cubic  centimeters  of  this  gum 
solution  are  mixed  with  pigment  and  four  cubic 
centimeters  of  bichromate  are  added  to  the  gum 
and  pigment.  It  must  be  understood  that  these 
measures  are  purely  approximate.  According  to 
the  depth  of  color  or  to  the  nature  of  the  pig- 
ment more  or  less  gum  or  more  or  less  bichro- 
mate will  have  to  be  added.  The  photographer 
will  be  guided  by  the  behavior  of  the  sensitive 
mixture  which  must  allow  of  rapid  and  even 
coating.  For  example,  if  he  uses  Venetian  red 
as  pigment  the  resulting  mixture  will  be  thin 
compared  to  a mixture  prepared  with  Vandyke 
brown,  for  the  coloring  power  of  the  first  pig- 
ment is  greatly  superior  to  that  of  the  latter,  con- 
sequently there  will  be  much  more  pigment  in 
bulk  in  the  second  case  than  in  the  first  and  a 
few  drops  of  bichromate  and  one  or  two  drops 
of  gum  will  have  to  be  added.  In  reality  every 
proportion  is  constantly  varying  in  this  process, 
the  only  important  and  unvarying  factor  should 
be  the  thickness  of  the  sensitive  mixture,  for 
smooth  and  even  coating  is  a necessity,  and  only 
a certain  thickness  will  allow  of  proper  coating. 
This  is  a matter  of  experience  to  be  acquired  by 
a few  preliminary  trials,  though  I have  worked 
at  the  process  for  several  years  and  it  is  rare  in- 
deed when  I do  not  find  it  necessary  to  thicken 
or  dilute  the  sensitive  mixture  before  beginning 
to  coat. 

Now  two  methods  of  working  are  open  to  the 
photographer,  either  he  may  sensitize  his  paper 
in  a 10  per  cent  solution  of  bichromate  by  immer- 
sion during  one  or  two  minutes,  dry,  and  then 
coat  with  gum  and  pigment,  adding  to  the  mix- 
ture a proportion  of  water  equal  to  the  quantity 


248 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


of  fluid  that  the  bichromate  solution  would  have 
brought  if  it  had  been  added  to  the  gum  and  pig- 
ment, or  he  may  coat  his  paper  direct  with  gum, 
pigment  and  bichromate  in  the  proportions  de- 
scribed above.  In  both  cases  the  degree  of  thick- 
ness of  the  mixture  must  be  tried  before  coating, 
and  this  operation  must  only  be  performed  when 
the  mixture  has  shown  a satisfactory  behavior 
under  his  preliminary  trial.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
judge.  A mixture  clinging  to  the  brush  and 
forming  ridges  which  cannot  be  softened  by  re- 
peated brushings  must  be  diluted — -while  if  it" 
runs  over  the  paper,  refuses  to  set  and  follows 
the  brush  in  waves,  gum  must  be  added. 

I do  not  say  anything  about  the  proportion  of 
pigment — this  is  a question  of  personal  taste. 

Coat  your  paper  in  full  diffused  light  or  by 
bright  gas  light.  Pin  the  dry  sheet  on  a drawing 
board,  take  a flat  hogs-hair  brush  (the  fan-shape 
seems  to  be  the  most  convenient)  smear  the  sur- 
face roughly  with  the  sensitive  mixture,  taking 
care  not  to  use  more  than  is  necessary  for  the 
complete  covering  of  the  sheet,  or  else  the  coat- 
ing will  be  too  thick.  This  rough  coating  is  cov- 
ered with  ridges  and  irregular  brush  marks ; do 
not  let  the  marks  set,  but  take  up  a goats-hair 
softener  and  give  a few  strong  downward  verti- 
cal strokes  which  will  change  the  irregular 
ridges  into  vertical  parallel  lines — break  these 
lines  by  several  horizontal  strokes  perpendicular 
to  the  first — the  lines  will  merge  into  one 
another  and  disappear.  A few  rapid  and  light 
touches  here  and  there  will  finish-  the  operation, 
which  ought  to  be  rapid  and  decisive. 

Pin  the  paper  up  to  dry  in  a dark  place — abso- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  249 

lute  darkness  is  not  necessary — and  when  thor- 
oughly dry,  expose. 

Correct  exposure — 1 mean  the  right  exposure 
for  the  desired  effect — is  the  delicate  point  of 
the  process.  It  can  only  be  obtained  by  com- 
parative trials.  I have  seen  men  disgusted  by 
their  constant  failures,  who,  as  I found  out  later 
on,  had  never  made  these  comparative  trials  on 
the  same  negative.  They  had  tried  every  possi- 
ble change  in  their  way  of  coating  and  their  pro- 
portions of  mixture,  but  had  never  had  the  idea 
of  trying  two  exposures — one  of  ten  minutes  and 
one  of  two  hours — to  ascertain  how  gum-bichro- 
mate paper  acted  under  extremes.  It  is,  notwith- 
standing, the  only  sure  way.  An  actinometer  is 
necessary,  of  course,  and  the  bands,  numbered, 
may  be  kept  for  future  reference. 

The  average  exposure  in  summer  by  diffused 
light  for  a thin  negative  should  be  twenty  min- 
utes to  half  an  hour.  Length  of  exposure  is  in- 
fluenced not  only  by  the  quality  of  the  light,  the 
color  and  density  of  the  negative,  but  also  by 
the  thickness  of  the  sensitive  coating.  It  is  of 
course  in  direct  ratio  to  this  thickness. 

To  be  able  to  fully  understand  the  importance 
of  control  in  the  development  of  a gum-bichro- 
' mate  print  we  must  realize  that  the  film  or  coat- 
ing on  which  we  are  going  to  operate  is  com- 
posed of  a substance  uniform  in  appearance,  but 
entirely  soluble  or  semi-soluble  in  some  parts, 
and  insoluble,  or  nearly,  in  others.  If  we  im- 
merse this  coated  paper  in  a dish  of  water  and 
let  the  solvent  act  undisturbed  on  the  whole  sur- 
face of  this  coating,  it  will  dissolve  it  proportion- 
ately to  the  extent  it  has  previously  been  rend- 
ered insoluble,  and  it  will  give  us  a positive 


250 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


duplicate  of  the  original  negative.  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, we  apply  the  S9lvent  irregularity  to  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  coated  paper,  if  we  use  hot  water 
here  and  cold  water  there ; if,  going  even  further 
in  our  personal  intervention,  we  add  local  fric- 
tion to  the  dissolving  action  of  water  locally  ap- 
plied, we  produce  a positive  which  has  not  been 
developed  in  proportion  to  its  solubility,  but  pro- 
portionately to  the  temperature  of  the  agent  used 
in  developing  and  to  the  force  and  frequency  of 
its  application — consequently  it  is  not  a dupli- 
cate of  the  original  negative  as  to  tone  and 
values ; but  the  result,  good  or  bad,  of  our  own 
judgment. 

In  reality  the  technical  or  photographical  part 
of  the  process  is  at  an  end  when  development  be- 
gins. Development  requires  no  chemicals,  and 
no  formula  to  mix  them.  All  you  have  to  do  is  to 
wash  away,  rub  away,  or  scrape  away,  according 
to  your  mood,  the  more  or  less  soft  pigment  at- 
tached to  the  paper.  You  can  develop  in  ten 
minutes  or  several  hours,  wash  away  one  side  of 
your  picture  before  developing  the  other,  work 
with  a brush,  a spurt  of  water,  or  a gentle  flow. 
So  there  are  no  rules  for  developing  save  those 
by  which  artists  of  all  crafts  ought  to  be  guided. 

The  only  indications  which  could  be  useful  to 
a beginner  are  the  following:  Always  develop 

the  print  out  of  the  bath  of  water;  if  it  is  im- 
mersed, it  stands  to  reason  that  local  develop- 
ment is  impossible.  Place  the  sheet  of  paper  on 
a glass  plate  propped  up  at  one  end  by  some 
sort  of  wooden  contrivance,  the  other  resting  on 
the  bottom  of  the  developing  tray.  Always  be- 
gin by  cold  water,  and  never  use  higher  tempera- 
tures until  you  have  ascertained  that  a low  tern- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


251 


perature  has  no  effect  whatever.  Develop  slowly, 
and  do  not  let  an  ounce  of  water  flow  over  the 
film  without  a definite  intention  calculated  to 
produce  a definite  effect.  If  hot  water  does  not 
reduce  the  heaviest  shadows  use  a very  soft,  flat 
sable  brush,  but  not  until  the  print  is  completely 
developed  in  other  parts — then  work  carefully, 
and  bear  in  mind  that  the  deepest  blacks  are  the 
foundation  of  your  picture,  and  that  should  they 
be  overreduced  the  whole  balance  of  the  com- 
position will  be  upset.  Do  not  imagine  that  after 
having  successfully  (from  a technical  point  of 
view)  developed  a gum-bichromate  print  you 
have  got  all  that  you  can  get  out  of  the  negative ; 
print  another  proof  and  yet  another.  Try  differ- 
ent exposures,  modify  the  temperature  of  your 
bath,  change  the  scheme  of  tone,  use  another 
batch  of  paper  coated  with  a mixture  of  different 
proportions,  and  you  will  be  astonished  at  the 
variety  of  effects  thus  obtained.  Each  one, 
though  quite  different  from  the  others,  will  give 
a true  and  pleasing  impression  if  the  relative 
values  have  been  kept  in  harmony  in  the  various 
schemes  of  tone  adopted. 

Failures  may  be  divided  into  four  classes. 

1.  The  coating  is  completely  washed  away  in  a 
few  minutes,  or,  after  being  successfully  devel- 
oped, seems  to  lose  all  cohesion,  and  instead  of 
drying,  melts  and  spreads,  ruining  the  print  abso- 
lutely. Cause : Underexposure. 

2.  The  coating  is  absolutely  insoluble  or  only  a 
trace  of  image  is  visible.  Cause : Overexposure. 

3.  Development  proceeds  normally,  but  the 
whites  are  stained  or  marked  with  granular  spots 
of  color.  First  case,  color-stained  whites.  Cause  : 
Excess  of  liquid,  bichromate  or  water  in  the  sen- 


252  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

sitive  mixture.  Second  case,  granular  deposit. 
Cause  : Excess  of  pigment. 

4.  The  coating,  on  developing,  breaks  into 
scales.  Cause : Extra  thick  film,  to  which  extra 

exposure  has  not  been  given.  We  must  not  for- 
get that  the  time  of  exposure  is  regulated  not 
only  by  the  color  and  the  density  of  the  negative 
and  the  amount  of  actinic  light,  but  also  by  the 
degree  of  thickness  of  the  coating.  A thick  coat- 
ing will  always  produce  scaly  development  when 
the  same  exposure  has  been  given  as  if  the  coat- 
ing was  of  normal  thickness. 

Gum-bichromate  prints  may  be  dried  before  a 
fire  or  over  a gas  stove,  if  the  color  does  not  ex- 
hibit any  symptoms  of  spreading.  If  it  is  in  the 
least  tender,  accelerate  evaporation  by  fanning. 
As  a rule,  however,  I prefer  to  let  the  print  dry 
naturally,  for  many  successful  alterations  in  value 
can  be  made  when  the  coating  has  thickened 
somewhat  and  is  less  delicate  under  the  brush. 

The  prints  when  quite  dry  must  be  oassed  for  a 
few  minutes  in  a clearing  bath  of  water  and  bi- 
sulphite of  soda  (1  per  cent)  to  eliminate  the  last 
traces  of  bichromate. 

Is  it  useless  to  add,  before  finishing,  that  we 
do  not  consider  a photographic  print  to  be  beauti- 
ful simply  because  it  is  printed  by  the  gum- 
bichromate  method.  We  like  the  process  and  we 
are  doing  our  utmost  to  popularize  it,  only  be- 
cause it  allows  of  great  control  over  tones  and 
values  and  because  in  the  hands  of  men  who 
have  acquired  and  cultivated  artistic  vision  it 
can  give  an  astonishing  range  of  varied  effects. 
The  opening  paragraph  of  this  article  may  have 
seemed  paradoxical  to  the  reader  at  first  sight ; if 
he  has  gone  through  the  whole  of  it  he  will 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


253 


acknowledge  that  success  in  the  technical  part  of 
the  process  lies  in  the  manufacturing  of  a sheet 
of  coated  paper,  the  coating  of  which  is  able  to 
disappear  in  certain  parts  only  under  the  action 
of  washing  or  friction,  while  other  parts  retain 
their  color.  This  paper  will  give  us  an  image, 
but  it  is  the  artist  who  will  do  the  rest.  He  will 
make  th~  picture. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


THE  SENSITIZING  AND  USE  OF  PLAIN 
PAPERS. 

When  I say  plain  papers  I mean,  of  course, 
papers  without  a superficial  coating  of  gelatine 
or  albumen.  In  the  choice  of  these  for  salting 
and  sensitizing  there  is  no  restriction  except  that 
of  chemical  purity,  and  no  difficulties  in  manipu- 
lation greater  than  will  be  met  with  in  any  other 
printing-out  process. 

Bromide  “matt”  papers  do  not  come  under  this 
heading,  since  the  gelatine  surface  is  only  made 
“matt,”  or  free  from  glaze,  by  the  use  of  starch, 
resin  or  other  admixture  in  the  coating  of  the 
paper.  Platinotvpe  is  a typical  example  of  a 
“plain”  paper,  and  similar  results  may  be  ob- 
tained by  the  use  of  silver  salts  instead  of  plati- 
num, with  the  additional  advantage  of  a far 
wider  range  of  color  and  texture  than  is  possible 
in  that  process. 

Choice  of  Papers. — Your  paper  should  be  chem- 
ically pure  and  particularly  free  from  iron  spots 
(which,  when  the  paper  is  sensitized,  will  spread 
out  like  asterisks),  and  at  the  same  time  it  should 
be  selected  with  an  ultimate  aim  as  to  effect.  The 
purest  I have  found,  next  to  “Rives,”  on.  which 
platinotype  is  coated,  and  for  the  matter  of  that 
most  silver  papers,  too,  is  Whatman,  which  is 
sold  in  three  grades,  viz. : H.  P.,  hot  pressed  or 
smooth  ; N.,  not,  and  R.,  rough  ; and  then  come 
Arnold,  Harding  and  Hollingworth,  all  of  which 
may  be  obtained  from  the  principal  artists’  sup- 

254 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


255 


ply  depots  without  any  difficulty  and  in  various 
sizes.  “Royal”  measures  24x20  in.  and  Imperial 
31x22  in.  These  sheets  can  be  cut  up  to  the  sizes 
you  wish  to  print,  allowing  a little  margin  to 
handle  them  by  in  salting  and  sensitizing. 

Salting  and  Sizing. — Having  decided  upon  the 
paper  you  wish  to  use,  a salting  bath  is  made  up 
as  follows : 

Common  salt 50  to  100  grains 

Gelatine 10  grains 

Water 10  ounces 

But  this  again  is  a variable  quantity,  soft  and 
porous  papers  requiring  more  gelatine  to  size 
them  than  hard,  rough  surfaces  will  take  up.  The 
bath  should  be  used  hot,  so  that  it  is  thoroughly 
absorbed.  The  exact  time  of  immersion — for  the 
paper  is  put  in  bodily,  not  floated — does  not  mat- 
ter, and  it  will  often  be  found  necessary  to  let 
the  first  sizing  dry  and  then  to  give  a second  bath 
later  on,  that  the  pores  of  the  paper  may  be  well 
filled  up. 

You  can  salt  half  a dozen  or  more  sheets  at 
once,  turning  them  over  from  time  to  time  and 
then  hanging  them  up  by  wood  clips  to  dry. 

At  this  stage  the  paper  will  keep  indefinitely, 
but  it  is  as  well  to  keep  it  under  pressure  that  it 
may  be  easier  to  manipulate  in  the  subsequent 
process  of  sensitizing.  The  stronger  the  salting 
the  weaker  may  be  the  sensitizing,  and  there  is 
room  for  considerable  variation  in  both,  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  negative  you  are  going 
to  print  from  and  the  result  you  want  to  get. 

The  paper  is  now  ready  for  sensitizing,  and 


256 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


this  is  done  on  any  of  the  ordinary  silver  baths 
used  for  albunienized  papers,  the  standard  beipg 
60  grains  nitrate  of  silver 
to 

1 oz.  of  water  (preferably  distilled) 
and 

15  grains  of  citric  acid. 

This,  with  occasional  strengthening,  will  last 
for  a long  time  kept  in  a dark  place  and  in  a well 
corked  bottle. 

Sensitizing. — Take  the  salted  paper  by  the  right 
hand  corner  and  float  it  on  the  bath,  using  gentle 
pressure  at  the  same  time  to  exclude  air  bubbles 
(which  would  come  out  as  insensitive  spots  in 
printing),  leaving  it  floating  for  two  or  three  min- 
utes, then  hang  up  to  dry  in  a moderately  dark 
room  until  it  is  ready  for  use. 

I have  found  it  always  better  to  sensitize  paper 
slightly  damp,  since  one  can  get  a more  even 
coating,  and  the  edges  do  not  curl  up  in  the  pro- 
voking manner  common  to  papers  when  dry,  but 
care  should  be  exercised  to  avoid  the  sensitizing 
solution  coming  on  to  the  back  of  the  paper. 

Printing. — This  is  done  in  the  ordinary  manner 
in  a pressure  frame,  but  the  image  may  be  taken 
rather  darker  than  with  ordinary  albumenized 
papers  to  compensate  for  subsequent  loss  in  ton- 
ing and  fixing.  But  be  sure  to  varnish  the  nega- 
tives before  printing,  to  avoid  staining  them.  I 
cannot  explain  it,  but  the  fact  remains  that  al- 
though I have  never  had  staining  occur  with 
albumenized  papers,  with  the  use  of  strongly 
salted  and  sensitized  drawing  papers,  such  an 
occurrence  has  been  frequent,  and  although  there 
are  several  reputed  cures  for  such  staining,  I have 
never  yet  found  a satisfactory  one. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Toning. — Any  bath  that  will  tone  albumenized 
prints  will  act  perfectly  well  with  plain  salted 
papers,  but  to  obtain  a rich  red  brown  with  what 
are  called  “juicy”  depths  in  the  shadows  and  un- 
degraded whites  in  the  high  lights,  use  the  fol- 
lowing stock  solution : 

m grains  chloro-platinite  of  potassium 
in 

y2  oz.  of  water. 

Then,  when  the  prints  are  to  be  toned,  take 
from  it  one  dram  mixed  with  4 oz.  of  water  with 
a few  drops,  say  5 or  6,  of  nitric  acid. 

This  bath  will  be  found  to  tone  very  rapidly 
and  it  will  keep  fairly  well.  Toning  being  com- 
pleted, wash  for  a minute  or  two  and  neutralize 
prints  in  a weak  bath  of  carbonate  of  soda ; they 
are  then  ready  for  fixing  in  the  usual  way. 


Fixing. — Hypo-sulphite  of  soda 4 oz. 

Water 20  oz. 


I look  upon  thorough  fixing  as  necessary  to  in- 
sure permanency  as  is  thorough  washing  in  run- 
ning water  afterwards,  and  prints  should  be  left 
in  the  fixing  bath  for  at  least  15  minutes  before 
they  are  put  in  the  washing  trough,  where  they 
should  remain  for  at  least  a couple  of  hours. 

I came  across  a print  on  plain  “Saxe”  paper 
made  by  an  artist  at  least  thirty  years  ago  and  it 
was  as  fresh  and  bright  as  on  the  day  it  was 
made.  It  was  a practice  with  this  artist  to  dab 
each  separate  print  with  a sponge  under  running 
water,  back  and  front,  for  a considerable  length 
of  time,  and  I have  never  seen  such  little  change 
in  color  of  silver  prints  as  are  to  be  noticed  in  his 
When  prints  are  well  washed  I take  it  that 
permanency  has  been  obtained  as  near  as  that 


258 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


unstable  metal,  silver,  will  allow,  and  although 
the  directions  for  the  manipulation  of  plain  paper 
seem  formidable  enough,  they  are  not  really  more 
so  than  would  be  required  for  the  intelligent  use 
and  practice  of  any  other  printing-out  process. 

There  is  another  method  of  obtaining  prints  on 
plain  paper,  developing  an  underprinted  picture 
with  a saturated  solution  of  gallic  acid  or  pyro- 
gallol  solution  acidified  with  acetic  acid.  I would 
also  recommend  the  use  of  a pure  unbleached 
paper  in  preference  to  any  other.  This  is  made 
of  linen  fiber  instead  of  cotton  rags  and  is  free 
from  chlorine  or  bleach  in  any  form. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


USEFUL  FORMULAE  — WEIGHTS  AND 
MEASURES. 

DEVELOPING  FORMULAS  FOR  DRY  PLATES  AND  NEGA- 
TIVE FILMS. 

Pyro  ABC  Developer. 

BY  WEIGHT. 

A.  Water  iooz. 

Sulphite  of  soda  crystals y2  oz. 

Add  enough  pure  acetic  acid  to  this  to  turn  blue 
litn^us  paper  slightly  red,  then  add : 

Pyro i oz. 

B.  Water  i6oz. 

Sulphite  of  soda  crystals 4 oz. 

C.  Water  16  oz. 

Sal  soda  crystals 4 oz. 

To  develop  take  of 

A y2  oz. 

B 1 oz. 

C 1 oz. 

*Water 8 oz. 

Apothecaries’  weights  are  intended  to  be  used 
in  the  above  formulas. 

More  water  gives  softness,  and  less  water  con- 
trast. Use  less  water  in  cold  weather. 

*For  double-coated  plates  use  18  oz.  of  water. 

259 


26o 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


PYRO  ABC  DEVELOPER — HYDROMETER  TEST. 


A.  Water  io  oz. 

Sulphite  of  soda  crystals y2  oz. 

Add  enough  pure  acetic  acid  to  this  to  turn  blue 
litmus  paper  slightly  red,  then  add  : 

Pyro i oz. 

B.  Sulphite  of  soda  solution  to  test 60 

C.  Sal  soda  solution  to  test 40 

To  develop  take  of 

A y2  oz. 

B 1 oz. 

C 1 oz. 

Water 8 oz. 


Less  of  B will  give  a warmer  tone  to  negative. 
If  negatives  are  too  yellow,  use  more  of  B.  If  it 
is  found  during  the  summer  months  and  in  the 
south  that  acetic  acid  softens  the  film  too  much, 
substitute  sulphuric  acid. 

The  hydrometers  referred  to  are  often  called 
actinometers,  and  were  formerly  much  used  to 
test  the  strength  of  silver  baths.  They  are  sel- 
dom accurate,  and  it  is  best  for  each  operator  to 
make  up  a set  of  the  solutions  according  to 
weight,  and  then,  noting  the  reading  on  his  hy- 
drometer, making  future  solutions  accordingly. 

EIKONOGEN-HYDROCHINONE  DEVELOPER. 

No.  1.  Distilled  or  pure  well  water. . . 32  oz. 


Sodium  sulphite  (crystals) 40Z. 

Eikonogen 240  gr. 

Hydrochinone 60  gr. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  26 1 

No.  2.  Water  32  oz. 

Carbonate  of  potash 4 oz. 

To  develop  take 

No.  1 2oz. 

No.  2 1 oz. 

*Water 1 oz. 

By  Hydrometer : 

No.  1.  Sodium  sulphite  sol’n  to^test  30.  34  oz. 

Eikonogen 240  gr. 

Hydrochinone 60  gr. 

No.  2.  Carbonate  of  potash  solution  to  test  50 

To  develop  take  of 

No.  1 2 oz. 

No.  2 1 oz. 

* Water i oz. 

More  water  gives  less  contrast  and  density. 

EIKONOGEN  DEVELOPER. 

No.  i solution : 

Eikonogen 40  gr. 

Sodium  sulphite 40  gr. 

Water  up  to 10  oz. 

No.  2 solution  : 

Sodium  carbonate 200  gr. 

Potassium  hydrate 25  gr. 

Water  up  to 10  oz. 

For  developing,  take  equal  parts  of  No.  1 and 

No.  2. 

HYDROCHINONE  DEVELOPER. 

A.  Hydrochinone  1 oz. 

Sulphite  of  soda  (crystals) 5 oz. 


*For  double-coated  plates  use  5 oz.  of  water. 


262 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Bromide  of  potassium 10  gr. 

Water  (ice  or  distilled) 55  oz. 

B.  Caustic  potash 180  gr. 

Water  10  oz. 

To  develop  take  of 

A 40Z. 

B y2  oz. 


After  use  pour  into  a separate  bottle.  This  can 
be  used  repeatedly,  and  with  uniformity  of  re- 
sults, by  the  addition  of  one  dram  of  A and  10 
drops  of  B to  every  8 oz.  of  old  developer. 

In  using  this  developer  it  is  important  to  notice 
the  temperature  of  the  room,  as  a slight  variation 
in  this  respect  causes  a very  marked  difference  in 
the  time  it  takes  to  develop,  much  more  sc  than 
with  pyro.  Temperature  of  room  should  be  from 
70  to  75  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

For  flashlight  exposures  a normal  developer  is 
sufficient  where  sufficient  powder  has  been  used. 
A weaker  developer  is  needed  only  when  there  is 
considerable  distance  between  the  subject  and 
the  light  or  where  too  little  powder  was  used. 


FIXING  BATH. 

A.  Water  . . . 96  oz. 

Hypo 2 lbs. 

Sulphite  of  soda  (crystals) 4 oz. 

B.  Water  32  oz. 

Chrome-alum 2 oz. 

Sulphuric  acid oz. 


Pour  B into  A while  stirring  A rapidly.  As  the 
chrome-alum  dissolves  slowly  a stock  solution  of 
B can  be  made  up. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


263 


METOL  DEVELOPER. 


No.  i.  Water 8 oz. 

Metol  100  gr. 

Sulphite  of  soda  crystals 1 oz. 

No.  2.  Water 10  oz. 

Potassium  carbonate 1 oz. 


Take  equal  parts  of  Nos.  1 and  2 and  six  parts 
of  water.  If  more  contrast  is  needed  take  equal 
parts  of  Nos.  1 and  2 and  three  parts  of  water, 
with  5 drops  to  the  ounce  of  a 1-10  solution  of 
bromide  of  potassium. 

For  Black-Tone  Transparency  and  Lantern 
Plates. 

METOL-HYDRO  DEVELOPER. 


A.  Water  16  oz. 

Metol  30  gr. 

Hydrochinone 30  gr. 

Sodium  sulphite  (dry) 120  gr. 

B.  Water  16  oz. 

Potassium  bromide 15  gr. 

Sodium  carbonate  (dry) 120  gr. 


If  the  crystalized  sulphite  and  carbonate  are 
used,  take  twice  as  much  of  each  as  the  formula 
calls  for.  To  develop,  take  equal  parts  of  A and 
B.  Developer  should  not  be  lower  than  75  deg. 
F.  in  winter  and  not  higher  than  70  deg.  F in 
summer,  and  can  be  used  repeatedly,  but  should 
be  discarded  as  soon  as  discolored,  as  it  will  then 
stain  the  film.  Always  develop  to  a good  inten- 
sity, as  plates  developed  with  hydrochinone  fix 
out  somewhat.  Rinse  and  fix. 

EIKO-HYDRO  DEVELOPER. 

A good  developer  to  give  brilliancy  from  flat 
negatives,  and  also  for  somewhat  warmer  tones 


264 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


than  our  metol-hydrochinone  formula  gives,  is  as 


follows : 

A.  Distilled  water 20  oz. 

Sulphite  of  soda  (crystals) 1 oz. 

Citric  acid 20  gr. 

Eikonogen  120  gr. 

Hydrochinone 60  gr. 

B.  Distilled  water 20  gr. 

Caustic  potash  (fresh  and  dry)  . . 120  gr. 

(Or  caustic  soda.) 

Bromide  potash 120  gr. 


Use  2 of  A to  1 of  B.  Can  be  used  repeatedly. 

Expose  somewhat  longer  than  for  the  metol 
hydrochinone  developer.  Temperature  of  devel- 
oper should  be  from  70  deg.  F.  to  75  deg.  F. 

Always  develop  to  a good  intensity,  as  plates 
developed  with  hydrochinone  fix  out  somewhat. 
Rinse  and  fix. 

FERROUS  OXALATE  DEVELOPER. 

A two-solution  of  ferrous  oxalate  developer  can 
be  made  up  as  follows : 

No.  1.  Oxalate  of  potash 40Z. 

Water  up  to 16  oz. 

No.  2.  Ferrous-sulphate  1 oz. 

Boiled  water  up  to 40Z. 

Sulphuric  acid 3 drops. 

For  use,  add  1 oz.  of  No.  1 solution  to  3 oz.  of 
No.  2. 

General  Formulas. 

TO  STRIP  FILM  FROM  ORDINARY  PLATES. 

Give  negatives  two  coats  of  2 per  cent  collo- 
dion. The  following  formula  yields  good  results  : 

Negative  cotton 30  gr.  (2  grin.) 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


265 


Ether 1 oz.  6 clrm.  (50  c.  c.) 

Alcohol 1 oz.  6 drm.  (50  c.  c.) 


Allow  the  first  coat  to  dry  before  applying  the 
second,  and  when  second  coating  has  set,  place 
immediately  in  cold  water  until  greasiness  has 
disappeared,  then  place  in  a bath  of 

Sodium  fluoride  (com.)  .5  drm.  (20  grm.) 
Water 5 oz.  (160  c.  c.) 

When  thoroughly  saturated  with  this  solution, 
which  will  take  at  least  an  hour,  place,  without 
washing,  in 

Water 7 oz.  (196  c.  c.) 

Sulphuric  acid 1 drm.  (4  c.  c.) 

Rubber  trays  should  be  used  for  this  and  the 
fluoride  bath.  When  film  begins  to  loosen,  lay  a 
piece  of  writing  paper  or  celluloid  upon  it  as  a 
support,  and  separate  the  two  from  the  glass. 
After  washing  well  under  tap,  it  can  be  trans- 
ferred to  a permanent  support. 

The  following  will  answer  for  this  purpose : 
Rub  a clean  glass  plate  with  French  chalk  and, 
after  dusting,  coat  with 

Gelatine 2]/z  oz.  (75  grm.) 

Water 16  oz.  (500  c.  c.) 

Glycerine 3 drm.  (10  c.  c.) 

Filter,  before  coating,  through  canton  flannel, 
and  avoid  air  bubbles.  Coat  on  a leveling  stand 
as  thick  as  the  plate  will  hold ; allow  to  set  and 
dry. 

CLEARING  BATH  FOR  PYRO. 

Perhaps  the  most  effective  clearing  bath  for 
abstracting  the  yellow  color  left  by  pyro  is : 

Iron  sulphate i]A  ounces 

Water pint 

Sulphuric  acid 1 dram 

Alum  ^ ounce 


266 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


But  bear  in  mind  that  a negative  is  sometimes 
shorn  of  half  its  beauty  by  being  robbed  of  its  yel- 
low tint.  Take  a print  from  it  before  you  tamper 
with  it. 

INTENSIFIER. 

The  fixed  and  well-washed  negative  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  following  mercuric-chloride  bath 
until  the  film  is  thoroughly  whitened : 


Mercuric-chloride i part 

Potassium  bromide i part 

Water 50  parts 


The  bleaching  being  completed,  the  mercuric 
solution  is  rinsed  off  and  the  negative  is  im- 
mersed in  a mixture  of  equal  parts  of  saturated 
solution  of  sodium-sulphite  and  water.  The  dark- 
ening action  will  be  seen  to  take  place  steadily 
and  slowly,  just  as  when  ammonia  is  used.  Wash 
away  the  excess  of  sulphite. 

REDUCER. 

No..  1.  Water 1 oz. 

Red  prussiate  of  potassium  15  gr. 

No.  2.  Water 16  oz. 

Hypo-soda 240  gr. 

Take  of  No.  1 4 drams  and  add  to  No.  2. 

When  the  negative  is  thoroughly  fixed  and 
washed,  lay  into  the  above  solution  until  suffi- 
ciently reduced.  Wash  after  immersion. 

MOUNTANT  FOR  PRINTS. 

Dissolve  2 oz.  of  gelatine  in  7 oz.  of  water.  To 
this  add  first  ^4  oz.  of  glycerine  and  then  3 oz.  of 
methylated  spirits.  The  mountant  should  be  ap- 
plied to  the  back  of  the  print  with  a stiff  brush 
and  the  print  should  then  be  placed  in  position  on 
the  mount  and  rubbed  or  rolled  firmly  down. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


267 


RETOUCHING  MEDIUM. 

When  touching  out  “pinholes”  or  other  blem- 
ishes in  a negative,  the  reader  will  find  some  little 
difficulty  in  making  the  pencil  “bite”  the  film  so 
as  to  produce  the  desired  effect.  To  avoid  the 
trouble,  a retouching  medium  should  first  be  ap- 
plied to  the  place  where  it  is  desired  to  work 
upon.  To  prepare  such  a medium  take: 


Sandarac y2  ounce 

Castor  oil 40  grains 

Methylated  spirits 3 ounces 


The  tip  of  the  finger  should  be  moistened  with 
this  mixture,  and  then  applied  to  the  negative 
and  rubbed  lightly  thereon  until  it  commences  to 
grip  or  stick.  The  desired  retouching  may  then 
be  readily  carried  out. 

BRASS — TO  BLACKEN. 

The  amateur  often  requires  to  reblacken  stops 
or  other  portions  of  the  brass  work  of  his  appar- 
atus which  have  seen  considerable  use.  The  old 
black  should  first  be  cleaned  off  with  a piece  of 
fine  emery  cloth,  and  the  metal  should  then  be 
dipped  in  a mixture  of  equal  parts  of  the  follow- 


ing solutions : 

No.  1.  Silver  nitrate 40  grains 

Water 100  minims 

No.  1.  Copper  nitrate 40  grains 

Water 100  minims 


When  the  stops  are  removed  from  the  above 
they  should  be  allowed  to  dry,  and  then  should  be 
uniformly  and  gradually  heated  until  they  as- 
sume the  desired  black  color. 


268 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


TO  CLEAN  GLASS. 

A useful  recipe  for  a glass-cleaning  mixture  is 


the  following: 

Pumice  stone  (powdered) 2 oz. 

Whiting  (powdered)  3 oz. 

Soft  water 2 oz. 

Ammonia,  .880 1 oz. 


This  should  be  applied  to  the  glass  with  a piece 
of  chamois  leather,  and  a final  polishing  may  be 
given  with  a tuft  of  tissue  paper. 

BLACK  FOR  COATING  INSIDE  OF  CAMERAS,  DARK- 
SLIDES,  ETC. 

The  following  is  a useful  black  mixture  for 
coating  the  inside  of  cameras,  or  dark-slides,  lens 
mounts,  parts  of  shutters,  etc.,  or  any  portion  of 
photographic  apparatus  which  requires  a dead- 
black  surface:  Take  1 oz.  of  gold  size  and  1 oz. 
of  lamp  black,  and  grind  or  rub  these  together 
thoroughly.  Then  add  y2  oz.  of  methylated  spirit 
and  8 oz.  of  turpentine.  It  may  be  applied  with 
a fine  piece  of  sponge  or  a soft  brush. 

TO  HARDEN  FILM  DURING  DEVELOPMENT  IN  HOT 
CLIMATES. 


Sulphate  of  magnesium 1 oz. 

Water 1 oz. 


Add  y2  oz.  to  each  16  oz.  of  developer. 

TEN  PER  CENT  SOLUTIONS. 

Strictly  speaking,  a 10  per  cent  solution  is  a 
Solution  which  consists  of  a liquid  having  some 
substance  dissolved  therein,  and  of  each  part,  by 
weight,  of  the  liquid,  one-tenth  is  represented  by 
the  weight  of  dissolved  substance  contained  in 
that  part.  For  photographic  purposes,  however, 


MODERN  F II OTOGR  A P H Y. 


269 


a 10  per  cent  solution  is  taken  to  indicate  that  in 
a fluid  ounce  of  480  minims  there  should  be  48 
grains  of  the  dissolved  substance.  To  make  a 10 
per  cent  solution  of,  say,  pyro,  take  1 oz.  of  this 
substance  and  add  water  to  make  up  not  ten  fluid 
ounces,  but  nine  fluid  ounces,  55  minims.  The 
advantage  of  such  a solution  is  that  a required 
weight  cf  pyro  can  readily  be  measured  out  with- 
out weighing,  for  if  15  grains  are  required,  then 
150  minims  of  the  solution  will  contain  the  de- 
sired amount,  and  may  quickly  be  poured  out  ex- 
actly and  without  trouble. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

Apothecaries’  Weight. 

SOLID  MEASURE. 

20  Grains  ==  1 Scruple  = 20  Grains 

3 Scruples  = 1 Drachm  = 60  Grains 

8 Drachms  = 1 Ounce  = 480  Grains 

12  Ounces  = 1 Pound  = 5,760  Grains 

FLUID. 

60  Minims 1 Fluid  Drachm 

8 Drachms 1 Ounce 

16  Ounces 1 Pint 

8 Pints 1 Gallon 

The  above  weights  are  those  usually  adopted 
in  formulas. 

All  chemicals  are  usually  sold  by  avoirdupois 
weight,  in  which  there  are  4373/2  grains  to  the 
ounce. 

The  precious  metals,  such  as  silver  and  gold, 
are  sold  by  troy  weight,  containing  480  grains 
to  the  ounce. 

In  changing  a formula  from  the  metric  system 


270 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


to  the  apothecaries’  system,  the  following  equiva- 
lents are  near  enough  for  all  practical  purposes. 


30  Grammes 1 Solid  Ounce 

30  Cubic  Centimeters 1 Fluid  Ounce 

1 Gramme 15  Grains 


In  an  emergency  coins  can  be  used  as  weights. 
The  weights  given  in  the  following  table  are  near 
enough  for  all  ordinary  purposes. 

Dime  40  Grains 

Cent  50  Grains 

Nickel  80  Grains 

Y\  Dollar 100  Grains 

y2  Dollar 200  Grains 

1 Dollar 400  Grains 

By  simple  addition  and  subtraction  a great* 
many  different  weights  can  be  made  with  these 
coins.  For  instance,  to  obtain  a weight  of  ten 
grains,  place  a cent  on  one  side  of  the  scales  and 
a dime  on  the  other  and  then  add  enough  of  the 
chemical  to  balance  it. 

Avoirdupois  Weight. 

27  11-32  grains  equal  1 drachm. 

16  drachms  (1  ounce)  equal  437J4  grains. 

16  ounces  (1  pound)  equal  7,000  grains. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

HELPFUL  HINTS. 

Don’t  use  a hypo  tray  for  anything  but  hypo. 

Look  on  the  ground  glass,  not  through  it. 

Keep  films,  plates  and  paper  in  a cool,  dry 
place. 

Label  chemical  bottles  and  keep  them  well 
corked. 

Always  dust  out  plate  holders  and  dust  plates 
well  before  loading.  A speck  of  dirt  will  leave  a 
transparent  spot  which  will  in  turn  leave  a black 
spot  on  the  print. 

Film  cartridges  are  dirt  as  well  as  light  proof 
and  so  the  film  requires  no  dusting.  Dust  will, 
however,  sometimes  settle  on  the  sections  of  film 
in  the  focal  plane  inside  the  camera  if  a long  time 
elapses  between  winding  the  film  into  position 
and  making  the  exposure.  A famous  lecturer 
and  photographer  overcomes  this  difficulty  when 
cycling  over  very  dusty  roads  by  not  turning  the 
key  until  he  sees  a picture  that  he  wants  to  take. 

Dust  on  the  film  or  plate  after  exposure  does 
little  harm,  as  it  cuts  off  no  light. 

When  in  doubt,  overexpose.  It  is  easier  to 
restrain  than  to  force  development. 

Do  not  develop  in  warm  water,  as  it  is  likely 
to  cause  frilling.  The  developer  should  be  about 
60  degrees  Fahr. 

A saturated  solution  is  one  in  which  the  liquid 
has  taken  up  all  of  the  solid  which  it  can. 

Keep  dry  plates  in  a dry,  cool  place. 

Pyro  stains  on  the  fingers  can  be  removed  by 

271 


272 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


washing  in  a strong  solution  of  chloride  of  lime 
and  then  in  a dilute  solution  of  citric  acid. 

A weak  solution  of  perchloride  of  iron  will  re- 
move yellow  stains  from  negatives. 

Old  and  dirty  hypo  solution  will  stain  the  film. 
Do  not  use  it. 

Do  not  dry  negatives  in  a room  having  a close 
atmosphere,  but  give  them  a little  draught. 

Drain  the  hypo  from  the  plate  before  washing. 
It  sometimes  causes  softening  of  the  film. 

If  unable  to  locate  cause  of  your  failure  do  not 
condemn  plate,  but  write  the  manufacturers  full 
particulars. 

TABLE  OF  COMPARATIVE  EXPOSURE. 


Hour  of  Day. 

June 

May 

July 

April 

Aug. 

Mar. 

Sept. 

I Feb. 
Oct. 

Jan. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

A M. 

| P M. 

12 

1 

! 1 

1 j 

n 

2 

3* 

4 

11 

1 

1 

1 

ii 

11 

' 2 h 

4 

5 

10 

2 

i 

i 

ij 

if 

3 

5 

6 

9 

3 

1 

11 

n 

2 

4 

*12 

*16 

8 

4 

n 

1 2 

2 

3 

*10 

7 

5 

2 

24 

3 

*6 

6 

6 

2* 

*3 

*6 

5 

7 

*5 

*6 

4 

8 

*12 

Example. — If  it  is  necessary  to  give  second 
exposure  in  June,  12  m.,  under  like  conditions  in 
December,  12  m.,  it  will  recpiire  2 seconds  ex- 
posure. 

In  the  use  of  a color  screen  no  rule  can  be 
given.  The  color  and  depth  of  color  are  impor- 
tant factors  in  governing  the  amount  of  increase 
in  exposure.  A very  dark  screen  is  not  to  be  rec- 
ommended, for,  besides  unduly  prolonging  the 
exposure,  it  may  also  give  an  exaggerated  ortha- 

*The  accuracy  of  these  figures  would  be  affected  by  yel- 
low sunset. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


273 


chromatic  effect;  for  instance,  in  a landscape  it 
will  tend  to  destroy  the  perspective  and  make 
the  clouds  too  prominent. 

Developing  Light. — One  thickness  of  ruby 
glass  and  one  of  orange  glass,  with  the  addition 
of  one  light  of  ground  glass  make  an  excellent 
developing  light. 

To  Test  Developing  Light. — Put  a plate  in  the 
plate  holder  in  perfect  darkness ; then  place  the 
holder  where  you  generally  develop,  draw  the 
slide  half  across  the  plate  and  expose  to  the  de- 
veloping light  as  long  as  it  generally  takes  to  de- 
velop a negative ; then  develop  the  plate  in  per- 
fect darkness  the  usual  time,  wash  and  fix.  If 
any  difference  is  then  found  between  the  exposed 
and  unexposed  part  of  the  plate,  it  is  proof  that 
the  light  is  not  safe  for  very  sensitive  plates. 

Speed  of  Plates. — The  sensitometer  number  on 
each  box  of  plates  indicates  the  rapidity  of  the 
same.  The  higher  the  number,  the  quicker  the 
plate.  The  difference  between  one  number  and 
the  other  of  the  same  brand  is  25  per  cent.  So,  if 
one  number  requires  two  seconds,  the  next  one 
higher  would  require  seconds,  and  so  with 
each  successive  number. 

Plates — To  Dry  Quickly. — If  it  is  desired  to 
dry  a negative  with  especial  quickness  after  it 
has  been  developed  and  fixed,  the  following  plan 
may  be  adopted : First  thoroughly  wash  the 
negative  and  then  drain  off  as  much  of  the  water 
as  possible.  Next  immerse  it  in  a bath  of  pure 
methylated  spirits  or  alcohol  for  about  five  min- 
utes. Then  take  it  out,  drain  off  the  alcohol  and 
stand  the  negative  up  on  end  to  dry.  Drying  will 
be  completed  in  from  five  to  ten  minutes,  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  of  the  spirit. 


274  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

The  warmer  the  air  in  which  negatives  are 
dried,  the  more  intense  they  become. 

Dark  Room. — If  you  spill  hypo  or  any  similar 
substance  in  your  dark  room,  don’t  leave  it  to 
dry  up ; wipe  it  up  with  a cloth  at  once,  otherwise 
it  will  evaporate,  leaving  fine  crystals,  which  will 
float  about  as  dust  and  be  sure  to  spoil  something 
or  other  and  you  will  look  in  vain  for  the  cause. 

To  Clean  a Lens. — First  spread  upon  a table  a 
clean  sheet  of  paper,  take  the  lens  carefully  apart, 
now  dust  with  camel  hair  brush  each  lens  on  both 
sides ; then  take  a clean  graduate,  pour  in  two 
ounces  of  distilled  water,  one  ounce  of  alcohol 
and  three  drops  of  nitric  acid  (C.  P.)  ; mix  well 
and  with  a tuft  of  filtering  cotton  dipped  in  this 
solution  rub  the  lens  on  both  sides,  polish  with 
a clean  chamois,  which  is  kept  for  this  purpose 
only,  which,  when  not  in  use,  put  away  in  a clean 
paper  bag.  After  the  lenses  are  all  polished,  be- 
fore putting  together,  wipe  out  carefully  the 
brass  tube,  then  dust  each  lens  'with  camel  hair 
brush  (never  blow  on  them)  and  put  together.  A 
lens  cleaned  in  this  way  will  keep  clean  much 
longer  than  it  would  if  simply  wiped  with  a 
chamois. 

Cleaning  Bottles. — Wash  with  benzine  or  with 
a solution  of  permanganate  of  potash,  to  which 
has  been  added  some  concentrated  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  disengaged  chlorine  destroys  the  fatty 
matter,  which  then  disappears  by  washing  in 
water.  Bottles  that  have  contained  resinous  sub- 
stances: Wash  with  potash  or  soda  and  rinse 
with  alcohol.  Bottles  having  contained  essences: 
Wash  with  sulphuric  acid,  then  with  water. — 
Wilson’s  Photo  Magazine. 

Ruby  Glass — A Substitute  For. — If  the  ama- 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


275 


teur  requires  a large  piece  of  ruby  glass  or  has 
the  misfortune  to  break  his  ruby  lamp,  the  fol- 
lowing hint  may  prove  useful : Procure  two 
sheets  of  ruby  tissue  paper  and  stick  one  on  top 
of  the  other  by  means  of  a coating  of  varnish,  so 
as  to  form  a double  thickness.  If  a very  deep 
ruby  is  required,  add  an  extra  sheet  in  the  same 
way,  or,  better  still,  a sheet  of  orange  paper. 

Focusing  Screen — Substitute  For. — If  you 
have  the  misfortune  to  break  your  focusing 
screen,  an  efficient  substitute  may  be  made  in 
the  following  way:  Obtain  a piece  of  thin,  clear 
glass,  of  exactly  the  size  of  the  original  screen. 
Then  take  some  negative  varnish,  dilute  consid- 
erably with  methylated  spirit  and  varnish  the 
glass  in  a manner  precisely  similar  to  that  of 
varnishing  a negative.  The  glass  should  then 
be  allowed  to  cool,  and  when  the  varnish  has  suf- 
ficiently hardened,  the  latter  should  be  rubbed 
gently  with  the  finger  until  it  loosens  in  the  form 
of  a whitish  powder.  When  this  treatment  has 
been  applied  all  over  the  powder  should  be  care- 
fully brushed  away  and  the  screen  is  complete. 

Cracked  Negatives — To  Print  From. — If  the 
reader  be  unfortunate  enough  to  crack  a valua- 
ble negative,  he  may  still  obtain  a satisfactory 
print  therefrom,  provided  the  film  remains  unin- 
jured. The  negative  should  be  carefully  placed 
in  the  printing  frame  in  the  usual  way  and  the 
latter  should  be  covered  over  with  tissue  paper 
or  ground  glass,  so  as  to  diffuse  the  light  as 
much  as  possible.  The  frame  should  also  be  con- 
tinually rotated  during  printing.  If  these  pre- 
cautions are  taken,  the  crack  in  the  glass  will 
practically  have  no  effect  on  the  resultant  print. 

Spoiled  Negatives — To  Remove  Film  From. — 


276  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

The  reader  may  sometimes  require  a piece  of 
clean  glass,  and  such  is  readily  obtainable  by 
stripping  the  film  from  a spoiled  negative.  To  do 
this,  immerse  it  in  a weak  solution  of  hydro-flu- 
oric  acid  and  before  long  the  film  will  leave  the 
glass.  If  the  acid  solution  is  not  available  at  the 
moment,  put  the  negative,  film  side  up,  under  the 
hot  water  tap.  In  a few  minutes  it  will  be  in  such 
a condition  as  to  require  but  little  trouble  to  re- 
move it. 

Stoppers — To  Remove  When  Tight. — In  the 

case  of  bottles  with  glass  stoppers,  trouble  may 
sometimes  arise  through  the  stopper  sticking  and 
refusing  to  come  out  when  wanted.  Prevention 
is  better  than  cure,  and  the  way  to  prevent  such 
an  occurrence  is  to  wipe  just  a suspicion  of  vase- 
line round  the  part  of  the  stopper  which  enters 
the  bottle.  When,  however,  a stopper  does  stick, 
the  neck  of  the  bottle  should  be  heated  evenly 
all  round,  either  by  the  friction  of  a piece  of 
string  drawn  rapidly  backward  and  forward,  one 
turn  being  made  round  the  neck,  or  by  the  direct 
heat  of  a taper  or  match.  This  alone  will  not 
loosen  the  stopper,  but  it  causes  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  to  slightly  expand  and  the  stopper  can  then 
probably  be  worked  loose  with  the  finger  and 
thumb.  In  obstinate  cases,  a stick  of  wood  with 
an  oblong  hole  cut  in  it  to  fit  the  stopper  should 
be  fixed  thereon  and  a steady  twisting  strain  ap- 
plied. 

HOW  TO  CONSTRUCT  AN  OPERATING 
ROOM. 

We  consider  the  operating  room  the  most  im- 
portant one,  and  the  first  to  be  considered  by  a 
photographer  who  aims  at  all  times  to  do  the 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY 


277 


best  work.  The  room  should  not  be  less  than 
20x40  feet,  if  possible  larger.  The  skylight  should 
be  ground  glass.  It  is  astonishing  what  a beau- 
tiful light  this  will  give,  especially  by  the  use  of 
the  movable  screen,  as  shown  in  sketch.  (See 
Fig.  70.)  The  screen  is  made  of  cheese  cloth. 


Operating  Room. 

Fig.  70. 


If  troubled  with  too  much  sun,  it  is  better  to 
shade  the  skylight  on  the  outside  than  on  the  in- 
side; it  keeps  the  room  cooler  in  summer.  Ven- 
tilators may  be  placed  at  the  highest  points  on 
each  side  of  the  skylight.  The  most  satisfactory 
light,  as  everyone  knows,  is  from  the  north,  and 
much  should  be  sacrificed  to  obtain  this.  Keep 


278  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

the  light  clean,  as  thereby  more  uniformly  good 
negatives  can  be  produced.  A very  good  plan  is 
to  have  a pipe  run  from  the  dark  room  to  the  roof 
and  right  across  the  top  ‘of  the  skylight.  Have  a 
line  of  holes  to  allow  the  water  to  shoot  down 
upon  the  glass,  which  cools  the  room  at  the  same 
time.  This  can  be  operated  from  the  dark  room. 
In  winter  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  a drain 
from  the  pipe. 

General  Instructions  for  Operating  Folding 
Hand  Cameras. — The  instructions  given  below 
will  have  to  be  modified  somewhat  to  suit  the 
peculiarities  of  the  camera  used,  but  as  nearly  all 
folding  cameras  are  of  the  same  general  con- 
struction the  necessary  modifications  will  not  be 
material. 

Hold  camera  in  left  hand.  With  thumb  or 
finger  of  right  hand  press  concealed  button  on 
top,  which  will  release  the  bed.  Lower  to  a 
horizontal  position  until  the  side  arms  snap  into 
place,  take  the  bulb  and  tube  from  its  position 
and  place  over  the  front  of  bed. 

With  the  thumb  and  forefinger  release  the 
small  hook-shaped  lever  directly  under  shutter 
by  a slight  turn  from  right  to  left.  Gently  pull 
on  same,  drawing  the  bellows  and  front  of 
camera  out  upon  the  bed  until  the  index  on  left 
side  of  front  indicates  the  desired  distance,  as 
shown  on  focusing  scale  from  your  position  to 
the  object  to  be  photographed,  which  has  previ- 
ously been  measured  or  estimated.  All  objects 
100  feet  or  more  away  are  in  focus  when  index  is 
set  on  the  ioo-foot  mark  on  scale. 

Take  the  loaded  plate  holder  from  the  carrying 
case,  insert  it  in  back  of  camera  in  front  of  ground 
glass.  Gently  move  until  it  snaps  into  position. 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


279 


Withdraw  the  slide  nearest  the  front  of  the 
camera.  Set  the  shutter  as  per  instructions,  com- 
posing the  view  by  aid  of  the  view-finder,  holding 
the  camera  perfectly  level.  Press  the  bulb  and 
the  exposure  is  made.  Insert  the  slide  in  the 
holder  (placing  the  black  side  of  handle  nearest 
the  front  of  camera,  which  is  an  indication  that 
the  plate  in  that  side  of  the  holder  has  been  ex- 
posed), inserting  the  slide  perfectly  even — not 
one  corner  at  a time.  Withdraw  holder  by  using 
the  right  hand,  drawing  slightly  toward  the  rear, 
reverse  holder  and  proceed  as  before. 

Having  completed  the  exposures  desired,  with- 
draw the  plate  holder  from  in  front  of  the  ground 
glass,  placing  it  in  the  space  allotted  to  it  in  the 
carrying  case.  Release  the  hook-shaped  lever  and 
gently  press  the  front  back  to  position  within  the 
camera  box,  tightening  the  lever  by  turning  from 
left  to  right.  Place  tubing  around  shutter,  allow- 
ing the  bulb  to  rest  on  the  opposite  side  from  the 
view-finder.  Holding  the  camera  with  both 
hands,  gently  press  with  both  thumbs  on  the  side 
arms,  which  will  release  them  and  close  the  bed 
to  its  original  position. 

Jn  using  the  camera  with  a tripod,  set  up  the 
tripod,  place  the  camera  on  top,  inserting  the  tri- 
pod screw  in  the  socket  of  the  camera,  screwing 
tight.  Open  camera  as  per  instructions  when 
using  by  hand.  Manipulate  the  legs  of  tripod 
until  the  camera  is  level.  Turn  button  in  back 
of  camera,  which  will  open  panel,  exposing  the 
ground  glass  to  view.  Set  the  shutter  and  turn 
dial  to  letter  T and  press  bulb  once,  thereby  open- 
ing shutter.  Look  upon  the  ground  glass  and 
the  view  may  be  plainly  seen.  A focusing  cloth 
may  be  used  if  desired,  which  will  greatly  aid  in 


28o 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


composing  the  view.  With  the  right  hand  man- 
ipulate the  front  of  camera  by  drawing  the  bel- 
lows forward  and  back  until  the  correct  focus  is 
obtained.  When  instrument  is  supplied  with  rack 
and  pinion,  use  same  when  focusing  instead  of 
the  lever.  (Remove  focusing  cloth  if  one  has  been 
used.)  Close  the  panel  in  back  of  camera  and 
press  bulb  once  to  close  shutter. 

Turn  the  dial  of  shutter  to  the  required  posi- 
tion for  time,  bulb  or  instantaneous  exposure. 
Set  shutter  and  make  the  exposure.  When  all 
exposures  desired  are  made,  close  the  camera  as 
previously  instructed,  unscrew  it  from  tripod  and 
place  in  the  carrying  case. 

The  rising  front  is  used  when  as  little  fore- 
ground as  possible  is  desired.  By  turning  the 
milled  head  screw  on  the  side  of  front  and  rais- 
ing the  bellows,  together  with  lens  and  shutter, 
the  result  is  obtained  and  can  be  better  under- 
stood by  raising  and  lowering  the  lens  while  ob- 
serving the  view  on  the  ground  glass. 

Always  readjust  the  rising  front  to  the  origi- 
nal position  before  attempting  to  close  the 
camera. 

The  entire  back,  containing  ground  glass,  may 
be  removed  by  pressing  down  on  the  small  spring 
at  top  of  same  and  gently  drawing  the  back  from 
the  camera.  This  is  used  only  when  a roll  holder 
is  being  adjusted. 

The  Swing  Back  is  used  to  assist  in  bringing 
into  focus  nearby  objects  at  the  same  time  as 
those  at  a distance,  and  to  correct  distortions. 
Should  it  become  necessary  to  tip  the  camera  in 
a downward  position  to  get  the  views,  swing  top 
of  back  out  and  bottom  in.  If  camera  is  tipped 
upward,  reverse  position  of  swing,  the  top  in  and 


MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


281 


bottom  out.  The  plate  in  consequence  is  nearly 
perpendicular  and  the  distortion  is  obviated.  It 
would  also  apply  when  back  is  reversed  for  up- 
right pictures,  the  plate  in  a vertical  position,  for 
photographing  tall  buildings,  churches,  etc.,  when 
it  becomes  necessary  to  tip  camera  up,  press  top 
of  back  in  and  bottom  out.  The  side  swing  is 
used  when  photographing  parallel  objects.  For 
illustration,  when  by  the  side  of  a long  bridge, 
when  all  cannot  be  brought  into  focus.  By  swing- 
ing one  side  of  the  plate  nearer  the  lens,  the  other 
farther  from  the  lens,  the  correct  focus  is  ob- 
tained. To  operate,  open  the  end  door  and  press 
the  two  concealed  buttons  at  the  rear,  opening 
the  top  of  the  camera.  With  one  hand  release 
the  swing  and  with  the  other  hand  grasp  top  of 
the  swing  and  move  to  the  desired  position. 

The  Horizontal  Swing  is  manipulated  by  press- 
ing the  lower  catch  on  bottom  of  camera 
and  with  the  other  hand  grasp  the  swing  at  the 
bottom  and  move  to  desired  position.  Always 
straighten  the  back  or  swings  after  using  and  be- 
fore attempting  to  close  the  camera. 

The  Principal  Object  of  the  Tele-Photo,  or 
long-draw  camera,  is  that  objects  at  a distance 
can  be  made  nearly  double  in  size  in  the  picture. 
This  is  accomplished  by  unscrewing  the  front 
combination  of  the  lens  from  the  shutter,  using 
the  back  lens  only.  The  use  of  the  rack  and 
pinion  and  focusing  on  the  ground  glass  will  be 
necessary. 


A 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 


3 3125  00025  8281 


